Laws of Chemical

Combinations
General Chemistry 1

Gil B. Rosialda
 Law of Conservation of Mass
 Itstates that when an ordinary chemical reactions
occurs, there is no detectable change in the masses
of the substances involved before and after the
reaction. Thus,

Masses of the reactants = Masses of the product

C + O2 CO2
(C = 2.00 + O2 = 5.34) (CO2 = 7.34)
 Law of Definite Proportion
(Definite Composition)
 French Chemist Joseph Proust (1754-1826) was
the first to observe the Law of Definite Proportions.
 Law of Definite Proportions: Specific substances
always contain elements in the same ratio by mass.
 This means that if a compound is broken into its
elements, the ratio of their masses will always be
the same.
 Law of Definite Proportion
(Definite Composition)
 Forexample, suppose I break 100 g of water apart
into hydrogen and oxygen. I’ll end up with 11.11 g
of hydrogen and 88.89 g of oxygen.

 Now suppose I take a different sample of water

that has a mass of 254 g, and break it into
hydrogen and oxygen. I’ll end up with 28.22 g of
hydrogen and 225.78 g of oxygen.
 Law of Definite Proportion
(Definite Composition)
 For example, suppose I break 100 g of
water apart into hydrogen and oxygen.
I’ll end up with 11.11 g of hydrogen and
88.89 g of oxygen.
 Now suppose I take a different sample of water
that has a mass of 254 g, and break it into
hydrogen and oxygen. I’ll end up with 28.22 g of
hydrogen and 225.78 g of oxygen.
 Law of Definite Proportion
(Definite Composition)
 Forexample, suppose I break 100 g of water apart
into hydrogen and oxygen. I’ll end up with 11.11 g
of hydrogen and 88.89 g of oxygen.

 Now suppose I take a different sample of

water that has a mass of 254 g, and break
it into hydrogen and oxygen. I’ll end up
with 28.22 g of hydrogen and 225.78 g of
oxygen.
 Law of Definite Proportion
(Definite Composition)
Another example:

Trial Mass of C (g) Mass of O2 (g) Mass of CO2 (g)

1 2.00 5.34 7.34

2 15.00 40.05 55.05
3 5.00 13.36 18.36
Law of Multiple Proportion
 English chemist John Dalton (1766-1844) noticed that
two elements could form more than one type of
compound. He observed that there was a pattern of ratios
in how the compounds were formed. This pattern of
ratios is called the Law of Multiple Proportions.

 Law of Multiple Proportions: When two elements form a

series of compounds, the ratio of the masses of the
second element that combine with 1 gram of the first
element can always be reduced to small whole number.
 Law of Multiple Proportions
 Carbon monoxide gas is the pollution produced by cars.
If you breath too much of it, you’ll die. Carbon dioxide
gas is produced by our bodies, and we get rid of it when
we exhale.
 Suppose we break apart a sample of 28 g of carbon
monoxide. We’ll end up with 12 g of carbon and 16 g of
oxygen.
 Now suppose we break apart a sample of 44 g of carbon
dioxide. We’ll end up with 12 g of carbon and 32 g of
oxygen.
 Law of Multiple Proportions
 Carbon monoxide gas is the pollution produced by cars.
If you breath too much of it, you’ll die. Carbon dioxide
gas is produced by our bodies, and we get rid of it when
we exhale.
 Suppose we break apart a sample of 28 g of
carbon monoxide. We’ll end up with 12 g of
carbon and 16 g of oxygen.
 Now suppose we break apart a sample of 44 g of carbon
dioxide. We’ll end up with 12 g of carbon and 32 g of
oxygen.
 Law of Multiple Proportions
 Carbon monoxide gas is the pollution produced by cars.
If you breath too much of it, you’ll die. Carbon dioxide
gas is produced by our bodies, and we get rid of it when
we exhale.
 Suppose we break apart a sample of 28 g of carbon
monoxide. We’ll end up with 12 g of carbon and 16 g of
oxygen.
 Now suppose we break apart a sample of 44 g
of carbon dioxide. We’ll end up with 12 g of
carbon and 32 g of oxygen.
 Law of Multiple Proportions
 Trythis problem: 128.64 g of iron (II) oxide
decompose to form 100 grams of iron and 28.64
g of oxygen. 142.97 g of a different compound,
iron (III) oxide decomposes to form 100 g of iron
and 42.97 g of oxygen. What is the whole
number ratio of oxygen between the two
compounds?
Atomic Structure and the
Subatomic Particles
General Chemistry 1

Virgilio B. Rosialda Jr.

 The Structure of Atom
ATOM – the basic unit of
matter. NOT THE SMALLEST.

From the Greek idea 2000

years ago to present, different
models for this structure have
been proposed. Each the best for
its time. Let us learn how the
model had to be changed with
new observations or experiments.
 440 BC
Leucippus of Melitus
Leucippus, a Greek philosopher, into smaller droplets?”
asked his pupil Democritus while
they are strolling along the beach
of Aegean Sea.
GREEK IDEA:
“If you were asked to
split a glass of water into
smaller drops until they
become too small to see,
would you ever reach that
point at which a tiny drop
could no longer be separated
 460-730 BC
 The idea Leucippus was
being expanded by
Democritus
 He gave the name
“ATOMOS” (Greek
word for uncut) which
means “indivisible ” to
these tiny particles. Democritus of Abdera
460-730 BC
 At that time, Aristotle
developed a theory that all
matter consisted of four
elements namely, fire, earth,
air, and water.
 These four elements are
related based on “four
principles of matter”, these
are the hot, the moist, dry
Aristotle
and cold.
 460-730 BC
 Aristotlethought
that “atoms” of
water are smooth
round balls and
that of fire have
sharp edges.
1774
Antoine Lavoisier’s
experiments and
measurements led to the
Law of Conservation of
Mass which states that
matter cannot be created
Antoine Lavoisier
nor destroyed before
and after the reaction.
1799
Joseph Proust developed
the Law of Definite
Proportion which states
that different sample s of
the same compound
always contain its
constituent elements in the
Joseph Proust
same proportion by mass
 Dalton’s Model (1808)
 Dalton’s Atomic Theory - the first experimentally
based theory of atomic structure of the atom
Postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. All matter consists
of tiny particles
called atoms
2. An atom cannot be
created, divided,
destroyed, or
converted to any John Dalton
other type of atom
3. Atoms of a particular element have
identical properties. Atoms of different
elements have different properties
4. Atoms of different elements combine in
simple whole-number ratios to produce
compounds (stable aggregates of atoms)
5. Chemical change involves joining,
separating, or rearranging atoms
 1897
 Electrons were the first
subatomic particles to be
discovered using the
cathode ray tube.

 In 1897, an English
physicist Joseph John
Thomson discovered that Joseph John Thomson
atoms were not just simple
solid spheres.
 Cathode Ray Experiment

Indicated that the

particles were
negatively charged.
 Thomson’s Model
(Plum-Pudding Model)
• He developed an atomic model in which
electrons were stuck into a positively charged
sphere like chocolate chips in cookie dough.
• Other call this “PLUM PUDDING”
1909 Gold Foil Experiments

 Ernest Rutherford is known

Ernest Rutherford
for his alpha-scattering
experiment.
 1909
1. Most alpha particles pass through the gold foil indicating
that the atoms is mostly empty space.
2. Some of the alpha particles are deflected and some even
directly bounce back to the source.
 Discovery of Proton
 Protons were the next
particle to be
discovered.
 The illustration in the
next slide shows the
apparatus used by a
German scientist Eugen
Goldstein that revealed
Eugen Goldstein
the presence of positive
particles in an atom.
1909
“The Cathode Ray Tube”
 Models of the Atom

(a) Thomson (b) Rutherford

 The Bohr Atom
In 1913, Neils Bohr’s modified Bohr’s model has been known
Rutherford’s model of atom. as the PLANETARY MODEL
Bohr proposed that each electron because it compares electrons,
in an atom has fixed amount of the planets and the nucleus, the
energy that keeps them moving sun.
around the nucleus within a
specific region He called this
region “energy level”.

Energy levels surround the

nucleus in rays or shells, just like
the layers of an atom
Bohr’s Model
2.1 Composition of the Atom
 Atom - the basic structural unit of an
element
 The fundamental unit of an element
that retains the chemical properties
of that element
Electrons, Protons, and Neutrons
 Atoms consist of three primary particles
electrons
protons
neutrons

• Nucleus - small, dense, positively

charged region in the center of the atom
- protons - positively charged particles
- neutrons - uncharged particles
 Electron
 In 1879, a British
physicist, Joseph John
Thomson, performed several
experiments using the
cathode ray tube.
 He noticed that the mass of
the cathode rays was over
1000 times lighter than the
 Electron
 Thomson concluded that the
cathode rays were very
light, negatively charged
particles he then called
“corpuscles.”
 He concluded that an atom is
divisible, disproving the
idea that the atom is
indivisible.
 Electron
The electron has a mass
of 9.110 x 10 -28 grams.
This mass is 1/1837 the
mass of a hydrogen atom.
The exact size of an
electron has not been
determined, but its
 Proton
 Eugen Goldstein (1850-1930), a
German scientist was the first
to observe the existence of
protons. In 1886, he conducted
an experiment using a modified
cathode ray tube made from a
metal disk filled with holes.
 He did not only observe the
stream of electrons emitted by
the cathode, but also the
 Proton
 However, Joseph John Thomson
was the one who discovered the
nature of the proton. He
calculated its mass to be
about 1837 times that of an
electron and showed that the
proton is a particle.
 Its sign is opposite to the
charge of the electron.
 Neutron
 In 1932, James Chadwick
discovered the third major
subatomic particle – the
neutron.
 This particle bears neither
a positive nor a negative
charge, and has a relative
mass of about1.675 x 10 -24
Characteristics of Atomic Particles
 Electrons are negatively charged particles
located outside of the nucleus of an atom
 Protons and electrons have charges that are
equal in magnitude but opposite in sign
 A neutral atom that has no electrical charge has
the same number of protons and electrons
 Electrons move very rapidly in a relatively
large volume of space while the nucleus is
small and dense
 Symbolic Representation of an
ElementCharge of
particle
Mass
number
A C
Z X
Atomic Symbol of
number the atom
 Atomic number (Z) - the number of
protons in the atom
 Mass number (A) - sum of the number of
protons and neutrons
 Atomic Calculations
number of protons + number of neutrons = mass number

number of neutrons = mass number - number of protons

Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons

Atomic Composition Calculations
Calculate the number of protons, neutrons,
and electrons in each of the following:

7 11 12
3 Li 5 B 6 C
55 65 84
26 Fe 30 Zn 36 Kr
 Ions and Charges
 Ions- electrically charged particles that result
from a gain or loss of one or more electrons by
the parent atom
 Cation - positively charged
 results
from the loss of electrons
 23Na  23Na+ + 1e-

 Anion - negatively charged

 resultsfrom the gain of electrons
 19F + 1e-  19F-
Calculating Subatomic Particles in Ions
 How many protons, neutrons, and electrons
are in the following ions?

39 
19 K

32 2-
16 S
24 2
12 Mg
 ISOTOPES AND ATOMIC MASS
 The atomic mass, measured in atomic mass unit
(amu), of a particular element is based on the
contributions of the existing isotopes of that
particular element. Thus, it is commonly referred
to as weighted average atomic mass.

 Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have

the same atomic number but differ in the mass
number.
ISOTOPES AND ATOMIC MASS
 Examples of Isotopes
Element Description Isotope Use

There are ten known isotopes

Americium
with Am-243 as the most Am – 241 Smoke detectors
(Am)
stable.
There are 22 radioisotopes and
Cobalt (Co) Co – 60 Food irradiation
the most stable is Co-59.
Tumor imaging
Gallium (Ga) There are eight radioisotopes Ga – 67 and localization of
infections
There are 8 radioisotopes, the Diagnosis and
Holmium (Ho) most stable is Ho-163 and Ho- Ho – 166 treatment of liver
165 as the natural isotope. tumor
 Examples of Isotopes
Element Description Isotope Use

There are 37 known isotopes

Iodine (I) I – 123 Medical imaging
with the most stable I-127

There are 13 radioisotopes for Treating brain

Boron (10) B – 10
Boron. tumors
Uranium (92U) is a naturally
occurring radioactive element that Nuclear reactors
Uranium (U) has no stable isotopes but two U – 235 for power
primordial isotopes (Uranium- generation
238 and Uranium-235)
There are three naturally occurring
Carbon (C) isotopes of carbon: 12, 13, and 14. C – 14 For carbon dating
C and 13C are stable
ISOTOPES AND ATOMIC MASS
ISOTOPES AND ATOMIC MASS
EXAMPLE:
1. Antimony (Sb) which is used in ceramics,
paints, and enamels has two stable isotopes.
The atomic masses of Sb-123 (42.70%) and
Sb-121 (57.30%) are 122.9042 amu and
120.9038 amu, respectively. Compute for
the average atomic mass of Sb.
ISOTOPES AND ATOMIC MASS
EXAMPLE:
2. Tantalum (Ta) is a transition metal that is
used in surgery. Two isotopes have been
identified, Ta-180 (0.012%) and Ta-181
(99.99%). The atomic mass of Ta-180 is
179.9475 amu and that of Ta-181 is
180.9480 amu. Compute for the weighted
average atomic mass of Ta.
ISOTOPES AND ATOMIC MASS
EXAMPLE:
3. Carbon has two stable isotopes, carbon-12 and
carbon-13. Carbon-12 is more abundant than
carbon-13. Carbon-12 contributes 98.90% mass
of the whole carbon atoms while carbon-13
contributes 1.10%. If the atomic weight of cabon-
12 is 12.0000 amu and carbon-13 has an atomic
weight of 13.0034 amu, compute for the average
atomic mass of carbon.
I. Fill in the necessary information.
Atomic Mass # of # of # of
Element
number number proton electron neutron
Calcium 40 20
Barium 56 81
Arsenic 33 75
Iron 26 30
Tellurium 128 52
Mercury 80 120
Silicon 14 28
I. Compute for the average atomic masses of these elements,
given their percent abundance and atomic weights.
Average
Known %
Element Atomic Mass Atomic Mass
Isotopes Abundance
(amu)
79 78.9183 50.69
Bromine
81 80.9163 49.31

63 62.9296 69.17
Copper
65 64.9278 30.83
16 15.9949 99.757
Oxygen 17 16.9991 0.038
18 17.9992 0.205
 Average
Known %
Element Atomic Mass Atomic Mass
Isotopes Abundance
(amu)

40 39.9626 96.941

42 41.9586 0.647

43 42.9588 0.135
Calcium
44 43.9555 2.086

46 45.9537 0.004

48 47.9525 0.187