|
 




  
  
| 




 


ë
|
Objectives
By the end of this unit you will be able to:
K Where folds occur and their
nomenclature
K What are the different fold types
K Understating folding process
K Differentiate between different type of
folds
K Understand the fold mechanisms and
where different type of folds occur
 ë 
ëolds are wave like structures
that produced by
deformation of bedding,
foliation or other planar
surfaces in the rocks. They
occur on all scales form
microscopic to kilometers
sizes.. They form in all
sizes
deformational
environments from near
surface brittle to lower-
lower-
crust ductile and from
simple shear to pure shear.
They occur singly and in
extensive fold trains
 ßmportance of folding
K Hydrocarbon traps.
K Concentration of
valuable minerals
(saddle--reef deposits)
(saddle
sulfide minerals localized
in the hinges of the fold
 |cale types of ëolds
ë 
 

K microscopic 



  
K mesoscopic 
 

K macroscopic 



[umpelly¶s rule: small
small--scale
structures are generally
mimic larger-
larger-scale.
 ‰ ‰
  ëë
|
K !
 "

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 "
 %"%"%
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K |tudy of vergence may be useful
in working out the overall
direction of tectonic transport of
all structures in an area and help
to fix an observer¶s location on
large fold.
|lip lines: „
 „





 
 „   
 
   
 

„ 
 

 ëold orders
The largest folds in a given area are
often called first-
first-order folds,
smaller folds on the limbs (flanks)
are second order folds.
To relate the geometry of small-to
large scale folds enveloping
surface is used. The enveloping
surface can be constructed through
connecting the inflection points.
nveloping surfaces are useful
for studying folds at outcrop scale
or in cross section where many
small folds occur on limbs of
larger folds, but the geometry of
the larger folds not clear.
 Types of ëolds
K Anticline:   # 
 '
&
 # 

)
K |yncline:   # 
 '
&
 # 


)
K Antiform:   '
 &&

) $

 #

  #

) ) &
K |ynform:   '&


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 ) &
K Dome: 



  &
 

  
K Basin: 

&

&

  
K Antiformal syncline:
syncline:  &&


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K |ynformal anticline: &


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$  #

) # 

 

 
 Types of ëolds
K Homocline:
) # 
 

  ë

 ë
*
*+
K !onoclineÄÄ   
& ##  
!onocline
K |tructural terrace:   
 



 
K Cylindrical:
##


'
&#

 # $

 $ '
 # 
%
  ë
*
ë
*,
K  on--cylindrical:
##

 

 on
 '

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*,
K |heath folds: 
 

 ((
   
 # #

'& #%
ë

*
* 
K Upright folds: #''
%
ë

*
* 
K Overturned folds: #' '
$ë

*
* 
K weclined folds: %
 


 #  #%
"
  #%


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#
  #
)  #%
ë
*
ë
*

K wecumbent folds: '#
  %%


K ßsoclinal folds: 
 
#  &#
% To distinguish between the different type

$

 of folds ëig. 14.13 (after ëleuty 1964) is used.
 Classification of folds based on the
bedding thickness, and hinge
curvature
(ëig. 14.14)
K [arallel folds: „

 




 
K Concentric folds:   „„„„
 
„ 
  „   



  
  
K [tygmatic folds:
 „ 

  

 „ 


„  

K |imilar folds: 

  
   


   „ 
 


K Chevron and kink folds:   

„ 

 „ 
K Disharmonic:   „



„ 

K |upratenuous folds: 
„
 




 „
 


„  „„

 




„   


„  


„ 
K ëault--bend and fault-
ëault fault-propagation foldsÄ
foldsÄ
 „   
 „
 [arasitic folds are used to
determine the position in a fold
parasitic or small size fold on the
limb of big size fold can be used
to determine the position as they
have Z sense of rotation clockwise
in one limb and S sense of
movement anti-
anti-clockwise in the
opposite limb. W and M sense of
movement are found at the hinge
of the big size fold.
Stereonet is also used to determine
the direction, vergence, and
sense of movement of big fold by
plotting the vergence and
parasitic small folds.
 ë
|!
‰||-ë-!‰
-
K ë !  :
based on interlimb angle and hinge area (|ee ëig. 14- 14-21
21))
 " "! "

# "- . 
K   #/
)
!   :
based on ductility and ductility contrast (ëig. 14-
14-27
27))
](ë%
"/'("/'( &"ë%
 &"
ë%

—


 

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)
!  ,0*
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 ë
  
ë

K ëlexural-slip folds: parallel concentric folds form by buckling
ëlexural-
or bending. Slip in these folds is parallel to the layering and
characterized by slickensides, fibers. They have constant layer
thickness.
  
  
 

K [assive-slip folds: type of similar folds, form by

[assive-
shearing along planes inclined by layering,
form by simple shear and not pure shear.
 ë
  
ë

K ëlexural-flow folds: form in rocks from low and
ëlexural-
moderate metamorphic grade. They are similar like
folds. Some layers maintain constant thickness but
others thickened into axial plane and thinned into
limbs, indicating higher contrast in internal ductility.
xample shale (change thickness) and quartzite (fixed
thickness))
thickness
  
  
 

[assive-flow folds: are similar folds that involve plastic deformation.

The layering acts only as a displacement marker. [assive flow folds
form in metamorphic rocks with low mean ductility and ductility
contrast. xample salt, glacial ice and water saturated
unconsolidated sediments
 ] 
 
] 
]uasi-flexural folds: are similar to the passive-
]uasi- passive-
flow folds but they are dis-
dis-harmonic folds
 ë
 MS
ë 

  



  



 

K temperature
K pressure
K fluid
K properties of the rock as determined by
composition, texture, and anisotropy.
‰
   












 ëold mechanisms
ëold mechanisms include:
K uckling
K ending
K [assive (ductile) flow
K ëlexural slip
K Kinking
K ëlexural flow
The end shape of a fold is may be a produced of one or more fold
mechanism. (see ëig. 15-
15-4)
uckling may be accompanied by flexural slip
act early in the fold formation and buckling
accompanied with flexural flow dominated
later as a result of tighten and pressure
increases during progressive deformation.
Under high temperature and pressure layers
may no longer control the shapes of the folds
but may serve only as strain markers.
 ë
UwA | ß[
K ct usually in low temperature
and pressure found at shallow
depth within the arth rust.
K
ayers maintain their thickness
through slip past one another
(book pages)
K ëlexural slip usually
accompanies the bending and
buckling mechanisms and is
recognized by slickensides or
fibers on bedding surface.
surface. ëibers
may be oriented perpendicular to
the fold hinge lines.
K
B
 Dß 
ending involves application of force across layers.
K Generally produce folds that are very gentle with large interlimb
angles.
K They involves flexural flow and are common in continental
interiors--cartons
interiors cartons-- where vertical forces may be directed at high
bedding, producing the broad
angle to the originally horizontal bedding,
domes and basins (example
(example arching cover rocks over basement)
K ëlexural bending of lithospheric plates also occurs at subduction
oceans.
zones and adjacent to oceans.
K
ayers in bending are bent like an elastic beam the has been
supported at the ends and loaded in the middle.
K n this type of fold mechanism layers are also go flexural slip.
K
BUCK ß 
ëolds form by buckling where force is applied parallel to
layering in rocks. The product of buckling is buckled fold.
K ëlexural slip commonly accompanies buckling at low
temperature and pressure.
K The result of this mechanism at low temperature is parallel
concentric folds (in low temperature).
K ßn high temperature the resulted type of fold may be similar
like folds.
folds.
K Buckling and thrust fault in-
in-between anticline and syncline
may produce fault-
fault-propagation folds at low temperature.
K Buckling is usually produce layers shortening.
shortening. -
K ëolds formed by a combination of buckling and pressure-
pressure-
solution strain maintain the shapes of buckle folds but may
develop a strong cleavage because of associated flattening
ë
1
1)
ë


ë
1
1)
ë

 ((+
+

((,
 [A||ß
| ß[
|

ë

s defined as slip at an angle to layering compared to flexural slip
where slip is parallel to layering. Slip in passive slip results in
a new cleavage or schistosity to accommodates movement
parallel to the new surface.
n this type of slip bedding or compositional layering serve only
as strain marker that record the displacement parallel to the
cleavage.
cleavage
K
Kß K ëO Dß 
Kink and chevron folds have straight limbs and narrow angular
hinges.. They form in minerals and rocks and occur on any scale
hinges
scale.
from crystal lattices to amp scale.
K Kink folds requires local slippage (flexural slip) between layers.
K ßf shear strength is exceeded and free slippage can occur in all
layers throughout the rock mass sinusoidal buckle folds will
form.
 ë
UwA ë OW
K ßn flexural flow some layers flow
ductility while others remain
brittle and buckle.
K ëlexural flow requires moderate
moderate--
to high ductility contrast
between layers.
K |trong layers may not undergo
thickness changes but weak
layers may go extreme thickness
changes.
K The products of flexural flow are
similar fold.
K ßn flexural fold amplitude and
wavelength may be controlled by
the original thickness, spacing
and strength of the strong
layers.
 [A||ß
ë OW
K nvolves uniform ductile
flow of the entire rock
mass.
K
ayering, foliation,
gneissic banding serving
only as a strain marker.
K n passive flow their must
be little or no ductility
contrast between layers.