NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 1

 Introduction

• There is a common trend throughout the world to use nuclear energy as

a source of power.

• This is because of the rapid depletion of conventional energy sources.

• Transportation network and large storage facility are not required

which is one of the major hurdle in coal based thermal power plants.

• How ever recently there is stiff opposition for the installation of nuclear
power plants due to a fear of radiation hazards.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 2

 Atomic structure

• The atomic mass unit is a unit of mass approximately equal to 1.66x10-27 kg.
• Mass of Neutron is 1.008665amu, Protons is 1.007277amu and Electron is
0.005486amu.
( The mass of Protons=1837xmas of Electron, Neutrons = 1839 x Electron. )
• Atoms which are having different number of neutrons than the number of
protons are known as isotopes.
• For example Uranium exists in three isotopic forms 92U233, 92U235, 92U238.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 3

 Binding energy
It is the energy required to keep the protons together in the nucleus of an
atom or It is the energy required to overcome the binding forces of nucleus is
called as binding energy.
• The binding energy is very large compared with chemical bond energy.
• When two nuclear particles are combined to form nucleus, it is observed that
there is a different mass of the resultant nucleus and the sum of the masses
of the two parent nuclear particles will be different. This decrement of mass
is called mass defect .
• Einstein’s theory of relativity shows that mass is convertible into energy and
this energy is given by the formula .

E = mc2
E – Energy(J)
m- mass defect(Kg)
c – Velocity of light (3 x 108 m/s)
The amount of mass defect is directly proportional to the amount of energy
released.
15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 4
 Nuclear fission

• In this type of process, heavy nucleus is divided in two equal number of

fragments.
• Fission can be caused by bombarding with high energy  particles,
Protons, X-rays as well as neutrons.
• How ever neutrons are most suitable for fission, they require less kinetic
energy to collide with nuclei.
• Two or three neutrons are released for each neutron absorbed in fission, and
can thus keep reaction going . Isotopes like U233, U235 and Pu239 can be
fission by neutrons of all energies , where as isotopes U238, Th232 and Pu240
are fissionable by high energy only.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 5

 Nuclear fission

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 6

 Nuclear fission

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 7

 Nuclear fusion

• Nuclear fusion is the process of combining or fusing two lighter nuclei

in to a stable and heavier nucleus.
• In this process also large quantity of energy released because mass of the
product nucleus is less than the masses of the two nuclei which are fused.
• These are often fusion process accompanied by release of energy.
• How ever the nuclear fusion reaction can not be regarded as much
significance for the utilization of nuclear energy.
• To have a practical value fusion reaction must be self sustaining ,i.e., more
energy must be released than is consumed in initiating the reaction.
• For initiating the nuclear fusion reaction very high stellar temperature of
30 million K is needed.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 8

 Comparison between fission and fusion

Fission Fusion
Heavy nucleus splits in to two nuclei of equal Lighter nuclei fuse together to form heavy
mass and energy released. nucleus with the release of energy.

About one thousandth of the mass is converted It is possible to have four thousandth of mass
in to energy. converted in to energy.

Nuclear reaction residual problem is great Residual problem is much less.

Amount of radioactive material in a fission Radioactive material produced is much less
reactor is high. than that of the fission reaction.

Health hazards are high in the event of Health hazards is much less.
accidents.
It is possible to construct self sustained chain It is extremely difficult to construct controlled
reaction reactors. fusion reactors.

Manageable temperatures are obtained Un manageable temperatures

Raw fissionable material is not available in Reserves of deuterium, the fusion element is
plenty available in large quantity.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 9

 Fuels used in the reactor
• The fuels which are commonly used are natural uranium containing 0.7%
U235 or enriched uranium containing 1.5 to 2.5 % U235.
• In addition to natural nuclear fuels some of artificial or man made fuels
such as Pu239, Pu241,U 233 are also used.
• Considering the necessary requirement of fission process and its availability
economically the fuels used in reactors are uranium, plutonium and
thorium.
• U235 is easily available nature with concentrations up to 0.7% and its
content increases up to 90% in enriched uranium.
• The nuclear fuels is available in three states solid, liquid and gas. In
reactors fuel is mostly used in solid state or in the form of solution
dissolved in water. The liquid metal reactors are in practical use. The fuel
used in the reactors is in the form of rods or plates .
• The fuel rods are surrounded by the moderator. The fuel rods are clad with
stainless steel or zirconium to prevent oxidation.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 10

 Elements of the nuclear reactor
The essential components of nuclear reactor are as follows:
1) Fuel rods
2) Control rods
3) Moderator
4) Reflector.
5) Coolants.
6) Shielding
7) Control mechanisms
8) Measuring systems.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 11

1)Fuel rods
Fuels which are commonly used are natural uranium and enriched uranium cast
in the form of rods and plates. The fuel rods are clad with stainless steel to
prevent the oxidation. The fuel rods are surrounded by the moderator.
2) Control rods
The purpose of the control rod is to maintain the value of multiplication factor
as one this is the minimum condition required to maintain the nuclear fission.
This maintains the steady state heat generation in the reactor. The material
which are commonly used for control rods are cadmium, Boron etc. The
control rods are automatically operated

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 12

Moderator
The function of the moderator is to reduce the energy of the neutrons evolved during
fission from 2Mev to 0.25 Mev in order to maintain the chain reaction. By the
slowing down of high energy neutrons, possibility of escape of neutrons is reduced
and possibility of absorption of neutrons to cause further fission is increased. This
also reduces the quantity of the fuel required to maintain the chain reaction. The
common moderators used are ordinary water , heavy water , graphite and
beryllium.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 13

4) Reflector
The neutrons which may escape from the surface of the core without taking
part in fission can be reflected back in to the core to take part in the chain
reaction. This is done by a reflector. The required properties of a good reflector
are low neutron absorption , high capacity to reflect and resistance to
oxidation and radiation. The moderators which are commonly used also
work as reflectors. A blanket of reflector can reduce the critical mass required
to maintain the chain reaction.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 14

5) Coolants
The purpose of the coolants is to transfer the heat generated in the reactor core and
use it for steam generation. The coolant circulated in the reactor core keeps the
temperature of the fuel below safe level by continuous removal of energy from the
core. The coolant used must have very high specific heat to carry more heat per kg of
coolant used. It should not absorb neutrons, It must be non corrosive , non oxidizing
and non toxic. Ordinary water , heavy water, sodium, potassium and carbon
dioxide are the common coolants used in power generating reactors.
6) Shielding
The reactor is source of intense radio activity and these radiations are very harm full
to the human life. Therefore it is necessary to prevent the escape of these radiations to
the atmosphere. The inner core is made of 50 to 60cm thick steel plate and it is
further thickened by few meters using concrete. The thermal shield is cooled by
circulation of water.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 15

7) Control mechanisms
The control system is also necessary to prevent the chain reaction from
becoming violent and consequently damaging the reactor. It is an essential part of
a reactor and serves the following purposes i) Starting the reactor , ii)
Maintaining the reactor at that level ,iii) Shutting down of the reactor during
emergency conditions. The control system works on the principle of absorbing
the excess neutrons with the help of control rods either made up of boron steel or
cadmium strips.
8) Measuring systems
Main instruments required in nuclear reactor are thermocouples for measuring
temperatures instrument for determining the thermal neutron flux.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 16

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 17
15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 18
15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 19
 TYPES OF NUCLEAR REACTORS

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 20

 Pressurized water reactor(PWR)

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 21

 Pressurized water reactor(PWR)

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 22

 Pressurized water reactor(PWR)

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 23

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 24
15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 25
 Pressurized water reactor(PWR)
Advantages:
1) Water is used in the reactor as coolant and moderator and is cheap and easily
available.
2) The reactor is compact, small in size and power density is high.
3) Fission products remain in the reactor and are not circulated.
4) Small number of control rods are required.
Disadvantages:
1) High primary circuit pressure requires strong pressure vessel and so high capital
costs.
2) Severe corrosion problems.
3) Reprocessing of fuel is very difficult.
4) The reactor must be shut down for recharging.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 26

 Boiling water reactor (BWR)

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 27

 Boiling water reactor (BWR)

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 28

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 29
 Boiling water reactor (BWR)
Advantages:
1) The cost of the pressure vessel is less compared to vessel required for PWR.
2) This reactor does not requires separate steam generator therefore the cost is further
reduced.
3).The reactor is capable of meeting the small fluctuating load requirements.
4) Thermal efficiency is high compared to PWR.
5) BWR is more stable than the PWR.

Disadvantages:
1) Steam leaving the reactor is slightly radioactive therefore shielding of turbine and
piping is required.
2) Power density of the reactor is only 50% of PWR.
3) Part of the steam is wasted at low loads.
4) Enrichment of the fuel for the reactor is extremely costly process.
5) More biological protection is required.
6) Possibility of burn out of fuel is more in this reactor than PWR

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 30

 CANDU
( Canadian-Deuterium-Uranium ) Reactor

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 31

 CANDU
( Canadian-Deuterium-Uranium ) Reactor
Advantages:
1) The fuel need not be enriched one.
2) The cost of vessel is less.
3) Low moderator level increases the effectiveness in slowing down of neutrons.
4) Construction time required is less compared to BWR and PWR.

Disadvantages:
1) The power density is considerably low compared to BWR and PWR.
2) It requires high standard of design , manufacture and maintenance.
3) The leakage is a major problem.
4) The cost of heavy water is extremely high.
5) The size of the reactor is very large.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 32

 Sodium Graphite reactor.
(Liquid metal cooled reactor)

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 33

 Sodium Graphite reactor.
(Liquid metal cooled reactor)

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 34

 Sodium Graphite reactor.
(Liquid metal cooled reactor)
Advantages:
1) The thermal efficiency is high .
2) The cost of graphite moderator is low.
3) Excellent heat removal capability.
4) The size of the reactor is small.
5) High temperatures are available at low pressure.
6) Super heating of steam is possible.
7) High conversion ratio.
8) The coolant sodium need not be pressurized.
Disadvantages:
1) Sodium reacts violently with water in the air.
2) Heat exchanger must be leak proof.
3) The problem of thermal stresses can not be maintained.
4) Intermediate system is necessary to prevent the reaction of sodium with water.
5) The leak of sodium is very dangerous as compared with other coolants.
6) It is necessary to shield the primary and secondary circuits with concrete blocks
as sodium is highly radioactive.
15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 35
 Gas cooled reactor

In gas cooled reactors, generally inert gases such as helium and carbon dioxide are used
as coolants and graphite as moderator.
The problem of corrosion is reduced much in such reactors.
The graphite tubes fitted with fuel rods or fuel tubes fitted in tubes or rods made up of
graphite and fuel mixed together are used.
The gas is passed through the tubes and carry the heat.
The fuel used is either enriched uranium or natural uranium.
Two types of reactors are used.
(a) Gas cooled graphite moderator reactor (GCGM)
(b) High temperature gas cooled reactor (HTGC)
Both types are graphite moderated.
GCGM uses natural uranium fuel while HTGC uses enriched uranium fuel.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 36

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 37
 Gas cooled reactors

Advantages:
1) Graphite remains stable even at high temperatures under high intensity radiation.
2) There is no chances of explosion in the reactor due to the use of carbon dioxide as the
coolant.
3) There is no corrosion problem.

Disadvantages:
1) The leakage of helium is the main problem.
3) The loading of the fuel is more elaborate and costly.
4) More power is required for coolant circulation

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 38

 Fast breeder reactor

Breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor that produces more fissionable material than it
consumes to generate energy. This special type of reactor is designed to extend the
nuclear fuel supply for electric power generation.
In this reactor, enriched plutonium is used as fuel without using moderator.
Breeder reactors are classified into two types
(a) Fast breeder reactors- these typically utilize uranium-238 as fuel.
(b) Thermal breeder reactors – these typically utilize thorium-232 as fuel.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 39

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
 Fast breeder reactor

n U  U
238
92
239
92

U 23
239
92  Np 
min 239
93
0
1


239
93 Np 2  Pu  
.4 days
239
94
0
1


15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 41

 Fast breeder reactor

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 42

 Fast breeder reactor

Advantages:
1) The moderator is not required.
2) High power density.
3) It has high boiling point.
4) Small core is sufficient.

Disadvantages:
1) Requires highly enriched fuel .
2) Handling of hot radioactive sodium is major problem.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 43

 Homogenous reactor

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 44

 Homogeneous Reactor. a nuclear reactor in which the
active core consists of a homogeneous mixture of nuclear
fuel and a moderator.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 45

 Advantages of Nuclear power plants:
1) Nuclear power plants need less space compared to other types of power plants.
2) Better performance at higher load factors.
3)There is saving in cost of the fuel transportation.
4) The operation is more reliable.
5) Nuclear power plants operation is independent of the weather conditions.
Disadvantages:
1) The capital cost is high.
2) The danger of nuclear radiations always persists in the nuclear plants.
3) The maintenance cost is high.
4) The disposal of fission products is major problem..
5) Working conditions in the power plants always detrimental to heath of workers.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 46

 Selection of site for Nuclear power plants
1. Fuel type and availability .
2. Accessibility.
3. Hydrology (availability of cooling water supply)
4. Transmission and load centre.
5. Safety
6. Radio active waste disposal
7. Foundation conditions

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 47

 Radiation hazards
Human beings are continuously exposed to radiation from cosmic rays and various
radioactive materials in the earth and air.
Small amounts of radiation can be tolerated but exposure to radiations above certain level
is dangerous to health and life.
Living tissues are affected in three different ways when exposed to radiations.
Ultimate effect of all these hazards on human being is to damage the living cells of
body by ionization.
The result of such damage may be immediate effects like burns, even death, or delayed
effects like leukemia , anemia or cancer or may be genetic giving hereditary effects.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 48

 Two Basic Types of Radiation

Particulate Radiation
-Alpha particles
- Beta particulate
Electromagnetic Radiation
-Radio waves
-Microwaves
-Ultraviolet light
-Gamma radiation
-X-radiation

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 49

 Shielding
The common nuclear radiation emitting from nuclear reactors
are in the form of
-rays,
neutrons,
X-rays,
-Rays and
-Rays.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 50

 Shielding
The  and  radiations are absorbed in a smaller thickness of the
shielding.  radiations require higher thickness shielding because of
their higher high level of energy and frequency they can penetrate
more . Neutrons have high power of penetration and do not follow
any defined path through the shield materials.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 51

 Shielding
The shield should be designed to absorb or reduce  and neutron
radiations. The nuclear radiation if it is not prevented , it will have
very bad effects on the human life and biological plants. The
desirable properties of the good shielding materials are.
1) It must have ability to absorb more  radiation with minimum
thickness.
2) It must be fire resistant.
3) The strength of the material should remain constant under the
influence of radiations.
4) It must have high density

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 52

 Nuclear waste disposal

Used fuel in a nuclear power plant is highly radioactive and can contaminate
air or water and if absorbed by a living organisms, it can cause biological
damage. Disposal of radioactive waste is therefore a problem which requires
consideration right from the planning stage.

Various methods used for the disposal of radioactive waste are given below.

a) Storage in tanks on site. Solid and liquid wastes are stored in concrete
or stainless steel tanks at site . During storage period the radioactivity
decays and then the waste is disposed of either in the sea or buried under
the ground.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 53

b) Dilution: Disposal of liquids after dilution to safe limits, in the rivers or
sea is also done. Gases are also left off in air after dilution. Before disposal
in the diluting the radioactivity of the gas or liquid being discharged is
reduced to acceptable levels.

c) Sealed containers: Radioactive liquid and solid wastes are put in sealed
containers which prevent the radioactive contamination . These sealed
containers are then disposed of at sea where they are quickly and completely
covered with mud in the bottom.

d) Underground burial. Another alternative is the burial of wastes direct

in the ground . How ever burial ground must be isolated from the public and
water must not be able to seep through as it may cause radioactive
contamination of drinking water supplies.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 54

 Nuclear power plants in India
1. Tarapur power plant: Located in Maharastra , has a capacity of 380
MW with the steam pressure and temperature of 35 bar and 2400C.
2.Rana Pratap Sagar power plant: Located near Kota in Rajasthan, has
a capacity of 400 MW with steam pressure and temperature of 40 bar and
2500C.
3. Kalpakkam power plant: Located near Chennai in Tamilnadu, has a
capacity of 470 MW.
4. Narora power plant : located near narora in UP , with , a capacity of
470 MW , steam pressure temperature of 40 bar and 2500C.
5. Kakrapar atomic power plant : Located near the Surat in Gujarat
with a capacity of 470 MW, steam pressure temperature of 40 bar and
2500C.
6. Kaiga atomic power plant: Kaiga situated near Karwar in Karnataka.
With a capacity of 440 MW , steam pressure temperature of 40 bar and
2500C.

15-03-2019 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 55