Survey & Case Studies

 General introduction to qualitative data collection

 Interviews
 Types of interviews
 Structured
 Unstructured
 Semi-structured
 Focus groups
 Considerations before, during, and after an interview
 Strategies for writing open-ended questions
 Use of inductive content analysis (thematic analysis) on interview transcripts

 Observations
 Participation observation
 Non-participant observation
 Naturalistic observations
 Data collection in observational research
 Survey
 Case study
 Survey

 A survey is a way of collecting information from a large group of people.

 It may combine quantitative data with qualitative data or only use quantitative.
 Surveys often use questionnaires with closed questions to collect data because it is easier to do
statistical analysis of such data.
 One example is a Likert Scale that asks a participant whether something is never, seldom,
sometimes, often or always true. It may also ask if they strongly disagree, disagree, have no
opinion, agree or strongly agree.
 Sometimes more open ended questions are used for data collection. A face-to-face approach to
administering surveys allows for clarifications if the respondent does not understand questions; this
may yield more reliable answers but it takes more time.
 What are some strengths of surveys?
 What are some potential limitations of surveys?
Student Activity:
Matchmaker.com

 Matchmaker.com is trying to increase success rates for matching people up to

their ideal partners. You are drafted in as an expert research Psychologist!
 You must devise a questionnaire (survey) that will identify all the qualities that the
person believes they have that make them a good partner and also identify
what they want in their ideal partner.
 You must pilot this questionnaire on the friends in your class and identify what is
the main quality people look for in a partner and present this back to the board.
Success Criteria

 You must produce a questionnaire. Your questionnaire must contain

at least 10 questions – keep it short. You must include a mixture of
open and closed questions. Questions must try and gain as much
detail as possible about what their qualities are and what their
perfect partner’s qualities should be. You must pilot your
questionnaire on me and some of your classmates.
 All questions must be ethical (i.e. You cannot ask anything
inappropriate such as sexual habits and the participants must have
a right to withdraw).
 General introduction to qualitative data collection
 Interviews
 Types of interviews
 Structured
 Unstructured
 Semi-structured
 Focus groups
 Considerations before, during, and after an interview
 Strategies for writing open-ended questions
 Use of inductive content analysis (thematic analysis) on interview transcripts

 Observations
 Participation observation
 Non-participant observation
 Naturalistic observations
 Data collection in observational research
 Survey
 Case study
Case Studies

 A case study is defined as an in-depth investigation of human experience.

Originated in clinical medicine - involved taking a patient’s personal history in
order to make a diagnosis.
 In a case study, the researcher observes the behaviour of an individual or a
group of individuals, such as a school class or social group.
 The data gathered in case studies are often holistic. The case study is often
concerned with descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings, or thoughts about
a topic under investigation (qualitative data), but it may also include
measurements, such as blood testing, IQ scores, or survey data (quantitative
data).
 Case Studies

 The case study is not a research method itself, but rather an approach to the study of
something unique - the case.
 The case study method is important because it may highlight extraordinary behaviour and
therefore stimulate new research. It can also contradict existing beliefs. Koluchova’s case
study of the severely deprived Czechoslovak twins, who made remarkable intellectual
and emotional recovery when they were placed in a caring social environment, is an
example of such a case study. The findings challenged the established theory that the
early years of life are a critical period for human social development, which, if not properly
developed, would produce irreversible results. It would be unethical or impossible to
recreate such cases in a laboratory setting.

What are some potential limitations of cases studies?

Intrinsic & Instrumental Case Studies

Intrinsic
 Intrinsic case studies are often
focused on resolving a problem or
better understanding a specific case.
 For example, looking at the
implementation of a new student to
student counselling program at a
school that has a bullying problem.
 Aim to investigate, not generalise
Instrumental
 Instrumental case studies represent
more general phenomena of interest,
such as losing a child, being
homeless, or being diagnosed with
cancer.
 Aim to generalise findings
 Student Activity:
Evaluation of Case Studies

Strengths Limitations
Answers
Generalizing from a single case study

 It has been argued by researchers within the quantitative tradition that a case study
cannot be of any value outside the case because it cannot be replicated, it cannot be
used for prediction, and the results cannot be generalized.
 A single case study normally uses a small sample that has been purposively selected so
that it is not statistically representative. This makes it difficult to generalize findings to other
populations. However, if evidence from other studies confirms the findings, it is argued that
it is possible to generalize to other people who are similar to those in the case study.
 A single case study may be used for inferential generalization - that is, the findings can be
applicable to similar settings if the researcher has provided a “rich-thick” description of the
phenomenon and the context. This is referred to as “transferability”. The results of single
case studies can also be generalized to existing theory - that is, theoretical generalization -
but not to populations. If researchers can replicate the pattern found in the single case
study, then the theory derived from the single case study gains in robustness.
 Student Activity:
Research in Psychology

A ban on smoking in enclosed public places came into force in Scotland on 26 March 2006. The legislation
makes it an offense to smoke, or to permit smoking in such premises. Scotland's Health Improvement Agency
commissioned a study to examine changes in attitudes and smoking behaviour among bar customers and bar
workers. They also assessed changes in the cultural contexts in which smoking and drinking takes place.
The study collected data from a cohort of bar customers, bar workers and bar managers from selected
premises both before and after implementation of the smoke-free legislation. In-depth interviews were
conducted, along with five one-hour observations in each of the selected premises. All of these observations
were conducted by a middle-aged, male observer from outside the study who matched the broad customer
profile of the study bars. Data collection was restricted to covert non-participant observation.
Systematic observations were conducted within each area in order to observe the social practices within
different social contexts of smoking and non-smoking during the 3 – 6 months before the legislation came into
force, immediately after implementation and 6–9 months post-implementation. Each location was sampled at
various points in time and across the study period to ensure that time-of-day and seasonal effects were
accounted for. Observational templates were developed in order to collect data on key indicators, such as
the type of the place and the use of the space, the characteristics and behaviours of the smokers/non-
smokers, ashtrays and positioning of smoking materials, as well as any violations of the ban.
Questions

 1. Why is the above study considered a case study?

 2. Discuss ethical considerations for this study.
 3. Evaluate the use of interviews in order to carry out the above
study.
Student Activity:
Checking for understanding

1. Which of the following is not true of a case study method?

a. The studies are often longitudinal.
b. The researchers may focus on a unique situation.
c. The researchers may study an individual, a group, or an organization.
d. They are generalizable to a larger population
Student Activity:
Checking for understanding

2. What does it mean if a case study has "transferability?"

a. It means that there is "grounded theory" that supports the findings.
b. The study can be replicated.
c. There is enough information about the context of the study that the findings can
be applied to a similar situation.
d. The sample of the study is representative of the larger population from which it
was drawn.
Student Activity:
Checking for understanding

3. Which of the following is an example of an intrinsic case study?

a. A study of how children perceive fairness in an elementary school setting.
b. A study of how homelessness affects self esteem.
c. A study of the role that social support plays in patients coping with mental illness.
d. A study of how well a mindfulness program at a local school helps teachers and
students to reduce their stress.
Student Activity:
Checking for understanding

4. What is meant by the statement: The case study is not a research method itself,
but rather a research strategy?
a. Case studies are a research method, but they are rarely used on their own.
b. Case studies are a strategy to solve problems.
c. Case studies use other research methods.
d. Case studies are always long-term.
Student Activity:
Checking for understanding

5. Why are case studies often considered to have high credibility?

a. They are highly objective; they are not subjective.
b. Case studies are easily replicated.
c. They can be easily generalized (transferred) to other populations.
d. Case studies use method triangulation so we know that it was not the choice of
the research method that led to the results.
Student Activity:
Checking for understanding

6. A case study is done on small, Catholic school in rural Kenya to see how they
deal with bullying. What is important to consider when looking at the transferability
of the findings?
a. Whether the study took place over a long period of time - or was it a cross-
sectional study.
b. The size, culture and location of the school.
c. The definition of bullying being used in the study.
d. Whether the children and teachers in the school are representative of Kenyan
society.
Student Activity:
Checking for understanding

1. Which of the following is not an example of triangulation?

a. Using both interviews and observations to see how young teachers deal with
problematic student behaviour.
b. Having a social worker, a psychologist and a biologist look at data from a study
of the role of stress on health.
c. Having a team of researchers all carry out an observation of free time behaviour
in an urban public high school and comparing their data.
d. Taking results of a study back to the participants and asking for their feedback.
Student Activity:
Checking for understanding

2. What is the name given to the plan for carrying out an interview?
a. A memo
b. An interview schedule.
c. A transcript.
d. An interview agenda.
Student Activity:
Checking for understanding

3. What is the key difference between an unstructured and a structured interview?

a. Unstructured interviews are based on themes and does not have a strict list of
questions that must be followed in a specific order.
b. Unstructured interviews are easier to analyse.
c. Structured interviews are more natural than unstructured interviews.
d. Structured interviews are more valid.
Student Activity:
Checking for understanding

4. Which of the following is not a limitation of a focus group?

a. Participants may demonstrate conformity to group opinions.
b. They are not highly naturalistic.
c. They are difficult to manage
d. There is a problem with guaranteeing confidentiality of the responses.
Student Activity:
Checking for understanding

5. When participants change their behaviour because they know that they are
being observed, this is called
a. Expectancy effect
b. Event sampling
c. Reactivity
d. Interviewer effects
Student Activity:
Checking for understanding

6. Which of the following is not true of a case study?

a. They are usually longitudinal.
b. They make use of method triangulation.
c. They are more holistic than simple experiments.
d. They are highly controlled in order to avoid researcher bias
Student Activity:
Checking for understanding

7. The school is doing a study on how student attitudes toward exercise. Students
are given a survey which gives them a statement and then asks them to rank how
strongly they agree with it. For example, the students read a statement like: I
exercise in order to fit in with friends. Then they are asked to choose how strongly
they agree with this statement: Strongly agree; agree; no opinion; disagree;
strongly disagree. What type of survey is this?
a. Likert Scale survey
b. A longitudinal survey
c. An open-ended questionnaire
d. A Thurstone scale survey
Student Activity:
Checking for understanding

8. Which of the following strategies increases the generalizabilty of a single case

study?
a. Using method triangulation
b. Providing rich data about the context of the study
c. Take the results back to the participant and ask him/her if it reflects their
understanding of the study.
d. Having several researchers interpret the data.