Unit-2

The physical layer

Topics to Discuss:
 Communication signals
 Transmission impairments
 Guided media (wired)
 Unguided media (wireless)
 Switching Techniques
 Purpose of Physical Layer
The OSI Physical layer provides the means
to transport across the network media the
bits that make up a Data Link layer frame.
This layer accepts a complete frame from
the Data Link layer and encodes it as a
series of signals that are transmitted onto
the local media. The encoded bits that
comprise a frame are received by either
an end device or an intermediate device.
 The delivery of frames across the local
media requires the following Physical
layer elements:
 The physical media and associated
connectors
 A representation of bits on the media
 Encoding of data and control
information
 Transmitter and receiver circuitry on
the network devices
 Physical Layer Operations

The media does not carry the frame as a single entity. The media
carries signals, one at a time, to represent the bits that make up the
frame.
There are three basic forms of network media on which data is
represented:
 Copper cable
 Fiber
 Wireless
The representation of the bits - that is, the type of signal - depends
on the type of media. For copper cable media, the signals are
patterns of electrical pulses. For fiber, the signals are patterns of
light. For wireless media, the signals are patterns of radio
transmissions.
Physical Layer Operations
 Physical Layer - Standards

 The Physical layer consists of hardware, developed by engineers,

in the form of electronic circuitry, media, and connectors

 Therefore, it is appropriate that the standards governing this

hardware are defined by the relevant electrical and
communications engineering organizations.
 Physical Layer - Standards

The Physical layer technologies are defined by organizations such as:

 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
 The American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 The International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
 The Electronics Industry Alliance/Telecommunications Industry
Association (EIA/TIA)
 National telecommunications authorities such as the Federal
Communication Commission (FCC) in the USA.
Physical Layer - Standards
 Physical Layer Principals

The three fundamental functions of the Physical layer are:

 The physical components (We have Already covered in the
Video)
 Data encoding
 Signaling

The physical elements are the electronic hardware devices, media

and connectors that transmit and carry the signals to represent the
bits.
 Physical Layer Principals

 Encoding
Encoding is a method of converting a stream of data bits into a
predefined code. Codes are groupings of bits used to provide a
predictable pattern that can be recognized by both the sender
and the received. Using predictable patterns helps to distinguish
data bits from control bits and provide better media error
detection. In addition to creating codes for data, encoding
methods at the Physical layer may also provide codes for control
purposes such as identifying the beginning and end of a frame. The
transmitting host will transmit the specific pattern of bits or a code to
identify the beginning and end of the frame.
 Physical Layer Principals

 Signalling
The Physical layer must generate the electrical, optical, or wireless
signals that represent the "1" and "0" on the media. The method of
representing the bits is called the signalling method. The Physical
layer standards must define what type of signal represents a "1" and
a "0". This can be as simple as a change in the level of an electrical
signal or optical pulse or a more complex signalling method.
Physical Layer Principals
Communication
Signals
Analog and Digital Data

 Analog and digital correspond roughly

to continuous and discrete.
 Analog data:- voice and video are
continuously varying patterns of
intensity so they can be said as
analog data.
 Digital data:- it is a data stored in
computer in form of 0 and 1.
 Analog and digital signals
 Signals: electric or electromagnetic encoding of
data.
• Analog signal – a continuously varying
electromagnetic wave that may be propagated
over a variety of medium depending on the
spectrum (e.g., wire, twisted pair, coaxial cable,
fiber optic cable and atmosphere or space
propagation).
• Digital signal – a sequence of voltage pulses that
may be transmitted over a wire medium.
Periodic and Aperiodic
signals
 A Periodic signal completes a pattern within
measurable time frame, called period and repeat the
pattern over subsequent identical periods.
 An Aperiodic signal changes without any subsequent
pattern or cycle.
 Analog signal
 Sine Wave: represents smooth repetitive oscillations
S(t) = A sin(2∏ft+Ф)
 S- instantaneous amplitude
 A- peak amplitude
 F-frequency
 Ф- phase
 Peak amplitude: It represents the absolute value of its highest
intensity, proportional to energy it carries.
 Period and frequency: period refers to as amount of time, In
seconds, a signal needs to complete one cycle.
frequency refers to no of the periods or cycles in one second.
 F=1/T and T=1/f
 Phase:
 The term phase describes the positions of the
waveform relative to time zero.
 Phase is measured in degree or radians.
 Time and Frequency domains:
 A sine wave is comprehensively defined by its
amplitude, frequency and phase.
 We can show a sine wave in either time
domain or frequency domain.
 Bandwidth:-
 the range of frequency a medium can pass is said to be
as bandwidth.
 The bandwidth is property of medium.
 Digital Signal
 Data can be represented by digital signals. 1 can be
represented by positive voltage and 0 can be represented
by 0 voltage.
 Two terms bit rate and bit interval are used to describe digital
signals.
 Bit rate:- number of bit intervals per second, usually expressed
in bits per second(bps).
 Bit interval:- time required to send one single bit
Bit interval=1/bit rate
Transmission Impairment
Transmission Impairment

 Signals travel through transmission media, which

are not perfect. The imperfection causes signal
impairment. This means that the signal at the
beginning of the medium is not the same as the
signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is
not what is received. Three causes of impairment
are attenuation, distortion, and noise.
Causes of Impairment
 Transmission Impairment

 Impairment Types:
 Attenuation
Means loss of energy. When signal travels
through medium it loses some of its energy.
 Distortion
Means signal changes its form or shape.
 Noise
Several type of noise such as thermal noise,
induced noise, cross-talk and impulse noise
may corrupt the signal
Attenuation
 Means loss of energy -> weaker signal

 When a signal travels through a medium it loses

energy overcoming the resistance of the medium

 Amplifiers are used to compensate for this loss of

energy by amplifying the signal.
Attenuation
Distortion
 Means that the signal changes its form or shape

 Each frequency component has its own

propagation speed traveling through a medium.

 The different components therefore arrive with

different delays at the receiver.

 That means that the signals have different phases

at the receiver than they did at the source.
Distortion
Noise
 There are different types of noise
 Thermal - random noise of electrons in the wire
creates an extra signal
 Induced - from motors and appliances, devices act
are transmitter antenna and medium as receiving
antenna.
 Crosstalk - same as above but between two wires.
 Impulse - Spikes that result from power lines, lighning,
etc.
Noise
Two cases of SNR
Transmission Media
Transmission media
 Transmission Media
 Guided media
– Twisted pair
– Coaxial cable
– Fibre optics
• Wireless transmission(unguided)
– Radio
– Microwave
– Light wave
– Satellite
Guided transmission medium
 Guided media, which are those that provide a
connection from one device to another,
include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and
fiber-optic cable.
Twisted Pair Cable
 A twisted pair consists of two insulated
copper wires arranged in a regular spiral
pattern.
 The twisting tends to decrease the crosstalk
interference between adjacent pairs in a
cable.
 Twisted pair may be used to transmit both
analog and digital transmission.
 Twisted pair is limited in distance, bandwidth,
and data rate.
 The attenuation for twisted pair is a very
strong function of frequency
Twisted pair cable
Unshielded and Shielded
Twisted Pair Cable
Twisted Pair

 There are two subcategories in twisted pair

 Shielded twisted pair
 Unshielded twisted pair
 Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cable consist the followings layers in its
construction
 The copper conductor
 Insulation layer of plastic foam
 Second conductor or shield of wire mesh tube or
metallic foil
 Outer jacket of tough plastic

 Coaxial cable can be used over longer distances and

support more stations on a shared line than twisted
pair.
 Coaxial cable is a versatile transmission medium, used
in a wide variety of applications, including: Television
distribution - aerial to TV systems.
 Characteristics
 It is comparatively inexpensive
 Its installation us comparatively simple
 It must be grounded properly in a network
connection
 Its bandwidth capacity is around 10 Mbps
 It is thin Ethernet connection maximum 30 nodes
and in thick Ethernet connection maximum 100
nodes can be successfully interlinked with this cable
connection
 It suffers from data attenuation
Coaxial Cable
 Optical Fiber
 Fiber optic cable is known as most sophisticated cables
used in long distance network connection.

 It has inner core of glass that conducts light.This inner

core is surrounded by cladding.

 Cladding is nothing but layer of glass material that

reflects light back into the core.

 Each fiber is then surrounded by plastic sheath

 The bandwidth of the signal produced by the transmitting

antenna is more important than the medium in
determining transmission characteristics.
Optical Fiber - Benefits

 greater capacity
 data rates of hundreds of Gbps

 smaller size & weight

 lower attenuation

 electromagnetic isolation

 greater repeater spacing

 10s of km at least
Optical Fiber
Optical Fibre
 Unguided media
 Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without
using a physical conductor. This type of communication is
often referred to as wireless communication.
 Examples of unguided media-
 Radio Wave
 Micro Wave
 Infra red
 Wi-Fi
 Bluetooth
 Lasers
Wireless Transmission Frequency
2GHz to 40GHz
 microwave
 highly directional
 point to point
 Satellite
30MHz to 1GHz
 Omni directional
 broadcast radio

3 x 10 11 to 2 x 1014
 infrared
 local
Bluetooth
 Bluetooth is a low-cost, low power, short range
wireless communication technology used in.
networking, mobile phones and other portable
device. Bluetooth wireless technology also
enables devices to communicate with each other
as soon as-they come within range; no need to
connect, plug into, install, enable or configure
anything.
Wi-Fi
 WiFi or Wireless Fidelity refers to the
technology surrounding the radio
transmission of internet protocol data from an
internet connection wirelessly to a host
computer. Most often the internet
connection is a higher speed one such as
satellite, DSL or cable rather than slower dial-
up connections.”
Satellite
 Satellite is relay station
 Receives on one frequency, amplifies or repeats signal and
transmits on another frequency
 Eg. Uplink 5.925-6.425 ghz & downlink 3.7-4.2 ghz
 Typically requires geo-stationary orbit
 Height of 35,784km
 Spaced at least 3-4° apart
 Typical uses
 Television
 Long distance telephone
 Private business networks
 Global positioning
Satellite – Point to point link
Satellite
 Infrared
 Infrared technology allows computing
devices to communicate via short-range
wireless signals. With infrared, computers can
transfer files and other digital data
bidirectionally. The infrared transmission
technology used in computers is similar to
that used in consumer product remote
control units
 Installation and Usage - Computer infrared network adapters
both transmit and receive data through ports on the rear or side
of a device. Infrared adapters are installed in many laptops
and handheld personal devices

 Range - Infrared communications span very short distances.

Place two infrared devices within a few feet (no more than 5
meters) of each other when networking them. Unlike Wi-Fi and
Bluetooth technologies, infrared network signal cannot
penetrate walls or other obstructions and work only in the direct
"line of sight.“

 Performance - Infrared technology used in local networks exists

in three different forms:
 IrDA-SIR (slow speed) infrared supporting data rates up to 115
Kbps
 IrDA-MIR (medium speed) infrared supporting data rates up to
1.15 Mbps
 IrDA-FIR (fast speed) infrared supporting data rates up to 4
Mbps
 Infrared Advantage
 Low power requirements: therefore ideal for laptops,
telephones, personal digital assistants

 Low circuitry costs: $2-$5 for the entire coding/decoding

circuitry

 Simple circuitry: no special or proprietary hardware is

required, can be incorporated into the integrated circuit
of a product

 Higher security: directionality of the beam helps ensure

that data isn't leaked or spilled to nearby devices as it's
transmitted

 Portable
 InfraRed Disadvantage
 Line of sight: transmitters and receivers must be almost
directly aligned (i.e. able to see each other) to
communicate

 Blocked by common materials: people, walls, plants,

etc. can block transmission

 Short range: performance drops off with longer

distances

 Light, weather sensitive: direct sunlight, rain, fog, dust,

pollution can affect transmission

 Speed: data rate transmission is lower than typical

wired transmission
 RadioWave

 Radio waves are used for multicast

communications, such as radio and television,
and paging systems. They can penetrate through
walls.

 Highly regulated. Use omni directional antennas

Omni Directional Antenna
Microwave
 Microwaves are used for unicast communication
such as cellular telephones, satellite networks, and
wireless LANs.

 Higher frequency ranges cannot penetrate walls.

 Use directional antennas - point to point line of

sight communications.
Wireless Channels
 Are subject to a lot more errors than guided media
channels.

 Interference is one cause for errors, can be

circumvented with high SNR.

 The higher the SNR the less capacity is available for

transmission due to the broadcast nature of the
channel.
Wireless Transmission

• The Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Radio Transmission
• Microwave Transmission
• Infrared and Millimetre Waves
• Light wave Transmission
 When electrons move they create electromagnetic
waves that can propogate through space.
 When an antenna of the appropriate size is attached
to an electric circuit, the electromagnetic wave can
be broadcast efficiently. All wireless communication is
based on this principal.
Radio Transmission

 Radio waves are easy to generate and can travel

long distances, and can penetrate building easily, so
they are widely used in communication.
 Radio waves are omnidirectional (can travel in all
directions).
Microwave Transmission

 Above 100 MHz the wave transmit in nearly straight

lines and can therefore be narrowly focused.
 Widely used for long-distance telephone
communication, mobile phones, televisions.
 They are relatively inexpensive.
Infrared and Millimetre
Waves
 Widely used for short range communication.
 Remotes of television, vcr and stereos are using this
technology.
 They are relatively directional, cheap and easy to
build.
 But have a major drawback that they can not pass
through solid objects.
Light wave Transmission

 Here unguided optical signaling has been used.

 Here laser is used for optical signaling.
 A disadvantage here is laser can not penetrate
through rain or thick fog.
Switching
 Telephone system is divided into two practical
parts
 Outside part(containing local loops and
trunks)
 Inside part(switching offices)
 There are main two types of switching
techniques.
 Circuit switching
 Packet switching
Circuit Switching
Circuit switching

 In telecommunications, a circuit switching network is

one that establishes a circuit (or channel) between
nodes and terminals before the users may
communicate, as if the nodes were physically
connected with an electrical circuit.
 In circuit switching once call has been set up, a
dedicated path between both the ends exists and will
continue until the call is finished.
 Here we need to establish end to end path before
any data can be sent. the elapsed time between end
of dialing and start of ringing is 10 seconds. During this
time the phone system is hunting for path.
a) Circuit switching b) Message switching
c) Packet switching
Message Switching

 An alternative switching strategy is message switching,

when this switching is used no physical path will be
establish between sender and receiver.
 Instead when the sender has data to be sent, it is
stored in the first switching office and then forwarded
later, one hop at a time.
 Each block is received in its entirety, inspected for
error and then retransmitted.
 A network using this technique is called store and
forward method.
Packet Switching

 Message switching was useless for interactive traffic,

so to get around this problem Packet Switching was
invented.
 In packet switching network places upper limit on
block size, allowed packet to be buffer in main
memory rather than on disk.
 Here the first packet can be forwarded before the
second has fully arrived, reducing delay and increase
throughput.