UV-VIs Spectros

Course: M.
Phil (Chemistry) Unit: I
UV - VISIBLE SPECTROSCOPY
Syllabus:
• Electronic transition
• Chromophores and Auxochromes
• Factors influencing position and intensity of absorption bands
• Effect of solvent on spectra
• Absorption spectra of Dienes, Polyene , Unsaturated carbonyl
compounds
• Woodward Fieser rules
MPC102 – PHYSICAL METHODS IN CHEMISTRY
Dr. K. SIVAKUMAR
Department of Chemistry
SCSVMV University
chemshiva@gmail.com
1
n
Electromagnetic Waves - Terminologies
Electromagnetic wave parameters:
Wavelength (λ): Wavelength is the distance between the consecutive peaks or crests
Wavelength is expressed in nanometers (nm)

1nm = 10-9 meters = 1/1000000000 meters
1A = 10-10 meters = 1/10000000000 meters
2
n
Frequency (n): Frequency is the number of waves passing through any point per second.
Frequency is expressed in Hertz (Hz)
3
n
Wave number (n ): Wave number is the number of waves per cm.
Wavelength, Wave number and Frequency are interrelated as,
1 n
=n =
Where,
l c
l is wave length
n is wave number
n is frequency
c is velocity of light in vacuum. i.e., 3 x 108 m/s
4
Electromagnetic Spectral regions
nm 10-4 to 10-2 10-2 to 100 100 to 102 102 to 103 103 to 105 105 to 107 107 to 109
EM
waves g-rays X-rays UV Visible IR Microwave Radio
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
E = hn h – Planck’s constant
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www.spectroscopyNOW.com
The Electromagnetic wave lengths & Some examples
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Electromagnetic radiation sources
EM radiation Spectral method Radiation source
Gamma rays Gamma spec. gamma-emitting nuclides
Synchrotron Radiation Source (SRS),

X-rays X-ray spec.
Betatron (cyclotron)
UV spec.
Ultraviolet Hydrogen discharge lamp
Visible spec.
Visible tungsten filament lamp
IR spec.
Infrared rare-earth oxides rod
ESR spec.
Microwave klystron valve
NMR spec.
Radio wave magnet of stable field strength
8
Electromagnetic Spectrum – Type of radiation and Energy change involved
9
10
11
Effect of electromagnetic radiations on chemical substances
The absorption spectrum of an atom often contains sharp and clear lines.
Absorption spectrum of an atom; Hydrogen
Energy levels in atom; Hydrogen
12
But, the absorption spectrum of a molecule is highly complicated with closely

packed lines
This is due to the fact that molecules have large number of energy levels and
certain amount of energy is required for transition between these energy levels.
Energy levels in molecule Absorption spectrum of a molecule; Eg: H2O
13
The radiation energies absorbed by molecules may produce Rotational,

Vibrational and Electronic transitions.
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Rotational transition
Microwave and far IR radiations bring about changes in the rotational energies
of the molecule
Example: Rotating HCl molecule
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Vibrational transition
Infrared radiations bring about changes in the vibration modes (stretching,

contracting and bending) of covalent bonds in a molecule
Examples:
Example:
Vibrating HCl molecule
16
Electronic transition
UV and Visible radiations bring about changes in the electronic transition of a molecule
Example: Cl2 in ground and excited states
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Cl2 in Ground state
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Cl2 in Excited state
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The Ultraviolet region [10 – 800nm]
The Ultraviolet region may be divided as follows,
1. Far (or Vacuum) Ultraviolet region [10 – 200 nm]
2. Near (or Quartz) Ultraviolet region [200 – 380 nm]
3. Visible region [380 - 800 nm]
20
The Ultraviolet region
Far (or Vacuum) Ultraviolet region [10 – 200nm]
• Electromagnetic spectral region from 100 – 200nm can be studied in evacuated system
and this regions is termed as “vacuum UV”
• The atmosphere absorbs the hazardous high energy UV <200nm from sunlight
• Excitation (and maximum separation) of  - electrons occurs in 120 – 200nm
Near (or Quartz) Ultraviolet region [200 - 380nm]

• Electromagnetic spectral region from 200 – 380nm normally termed as “Ultraviolet
region”
• The atmosphere is transparent in this region and quartz optics may be used to scan
from 200 – 380nm
• Excitation of p and d orbital electrons,  - electrons and  - conjugation (joining together)
systems occurs in 200 – 380nm
Example for  conjugation Benzene
21
The Visible region
Visible region [380 – 800nm]
• Electromagnetic spectral region from 380 – 800nm is termed as “visible region”

• The atmosphere absorbs the hazardous high energy UV <200nm from sunlight
• Excitation of -conjugation occurs in visible region; 380 – 800nm
• Conjugation of double bonds lowers the energy required for the transition and
absorption will move to longer wavelength (i.e., to low energy)
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VISIBLE region in Electromagnetic Spectrum
•Violet : 380 - 420 nm

•Indigo : 420 - 440 nm
•Blue : 440 - 490 nm
•Green : 490 - 570 nm
•Yellow : 570 - 585 nm
•Orange : 585 - 620 nm
•Red : 620 - 800 nm
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UV - VISIBLE SPECTROSCOPY
• In UV - Visible Spectroscopy, the sample is irradiated with the broad
spectrum of the UV - Visible radiation
• If a particular electronic transition matches the energy of a certain band

of UV - Visible, it will be absorbed
• The remaining UV - Visible light passes through the sample and is

observed
• From this residual radiation a spectrum is obtained with “gaps” at these

discrete energies – this is called an absorption spectrum
24
Lambert’s law
fraction of the monochromatic light absorbed by a
homogeneous medium is independent of the intensity of the
incident light and each successive unit layer absorbs an equal
fraction of the light incident on it
Lambert
Beer’s law
fraction of the incident light absorbed is proportional to the number of

the absorbing molecules in the light-path and will increase with
increasing concentration or sample thickness.
Beer
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Beer–Lambert law / Beer–Lambert– Bouguer law / Lambert – Beer law
log (I0/I) =  c l = A
Where,
I0 - the intensity of incident light
I - the intensity of transmitted light
 - molar absorptivity / molar extinction coefficient in cm 2 mol-1 or L mol-1 cm-1.
c - concentration in mol L-1
l - path length in cm
A - absorbance (unitless)
Molar absorptivity
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Absorption intensity 
 max Intensity of absorption is directly proportional to the transition probability

A fully allowed transition will have  max > 10000
A low transition probability will have  max < 1000
l max wavelength of light corresponding to maximum absorption is designated as l max and

can be read directly from the horizontal axis of the spectrum
Absorbance (A) is the vertical axis of the spectrum A = log (I0/I)
I0 - intensity of the incident light; I - intensity of transmitted light
 max = 20000
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Generalizations Regarding l max
If spectrum of compound shows, Absorption band of

very low intensity ( max = 10-100) in the 270-350nm region, and
no other absorptions above 200 nm,
Then, the compound contains a simple, nonconjugated chromophore containing n
electrons.
The weak band is due to n  * transitions.
If the spectrum of a compound exhibits many bands, some of which appear even in the
visible region, the compound is likely to contain long-chain conjugated or polycyclic
aromatic chromophore.
If the compound is colored, there may be at least 4 to 5 conjugated chromophores and

auxochromes.
Exceptions: some nitro-, azo-, diazo-, and nitroso-compounds will absorb visible light.
28
Generalizations Regarding  max
If  max = 10,000 - 20,000; generally a simple , -unsaturated ketone or diene

If  max = 1,000 - 10,000 normally an aromatic system
Substitution on the aromatic nucleus by a functional group which extends the length of
the chromophore may give bands with  max > 10,000 along with some which still have
 max < 10,000.
Bands with  max < 100 represent n  * transitions.
molar absorptivities vary by orders of magnitude:

values of 104-106 are termed high intensity absorptions
values of 103 -104 are termed low intensity absorptions
values of 0 to 103 are the absorptions of forbidden transitions
29
Beer–Lambert law / Beer–Lambert– Bouguer law / Lambert – Beer law
Bouguer
Actually investigated the
range of absorption Vs
thickness of medium
?
Lambert
Extended the concepts

developed by Bouguer
Beer
Applied Lambert’s
concept to solutions of
different concentrations
Bernard
Beer released the results
of Lambert’s concept just
prior to those of Bernard
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Electronic Energy Levels
• Absorption of UV - Visible radiation by an organic molecule leads to

electronic excitation among various energy levels within the molecule.
• Electron transitions generally occur in between a occupied bonding or lone

pair orbital and an unoccupied non-bonding or antibonding orbital.
• The energy difference between various energy levels, in most organic

molecules, varies from 30 to 150 kcal/mole
31
 Bonding and anti-bonding formation from s atomic orbitals (Eg: H2 molecule)
Bonding between two hydrogen atoms One molecular orbital
with 2 electrons
2 atomic orbitals of
2 hydrogen atoms
According to Molecular Orbital Theory
One antibonding orbital without

electrons and two nuclei
One bonding orbital

with 2 electrons
2 hydrogen atoms
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 Bonding and anti-bonding formation from s atomic orbitals (Eg: H2 molecule)
According to Molecular Orbital Theory Higher energy

than original atomic
orbitals and bonding
orbital - Because of
repulsion
Lower energy
than original atomic orbitals
2 hydrogen atoms
Bonding orbitals are lower in energy than its original (atoms) atomic orbitals.
Because, energy is released when the bonding orbital is formed,
i.e., hydrogen molecule is more energetically stable than the original atoms.
However, an anti-bonding orbital is less energetically stable than the original atoms.
A bonding orbital is stable because of the attractions between the nuclei and the electrons.
In an anti-bonding orbital there are no equivalent attractions - instead of attraction you get repulsions.
There is very little chance of finding the electrons between the two nuclei - and in fact half-way between the nuclei
there is zero chance of finding electrons. There is nothing to stop the two nuclei from repelling each other apart.
So in the hydrogen case, both of the electrons go into the bonding orbital, because that produces the greatest stability
33
- more stable than having separate atoms, and a lot more stable than having the electrons in the anti-bonding orbital.
 Bonding and anti-bonding formation from p atomic orbitals
34
 Bonding and anti-bonding formation from p atomic orbitals
35
* (antibonding)
* (antibonding)
n (nonbonding)
Energy
 (bonding)
 (bonding)
 - orbitals are the lowest energy occupied molecular orbitals

* - orbitals are the highest energy unoccupied molecular orbitals
 - orbitals are of somewhat higher energy occupied molecular orbitals
* - orbitals are lower in energy (unoccupied molecular orbitals) than *
n - orbitals; Unshared pairs (electrons) lie at the energy of the original atomic orbital.
Most often n - orbitals energy is higher than  and .
since no bond is formed, there is no benefit in energy
36
Graphically,
*
Unoccupied levels
*
Atomic orbital Atomic orbital

Energy n
Occupied levels


Molecular orbitals
37
Electronic Transitions
• The valence electrons in organic molecules are involved in bonding as
 - bonds,  - bonds or present in the non-bonding form (lone pair)
• Due to the absorption of UV - Visible radiation by an organic molecule different

electronic transitions within the molecule occurs depending upon the nature of
bonding.
• The wavelength of UV - Visible radiation causing an electronic transition depends

on the energy of bonding and antibonding orbitals.
• The lowest energy transition is typically that of an electron in the

Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital (HOMO) to the
Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO)
* Unoccupied levels
*
Atomic orbital Atomic orbital

Energy n
Occupied levels

 38
Molecular orbitals
Types of Electronic Transitions
Transition between bonding molecular orbitals and anti-bonding molecular orbitals
They are of three types:

  *
  *
  *
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  * (bonding  to anti-bonding )
* (antibonding)
•   * transition requires large energies * (antibonding)
in
far UV region in 120-200nm range.
n (nonbonding)
• Molar absorptivity: Low
 max = 1000 - 10000
 (bonding)
 (bonding)
• Examples: Alkanes - transition @ 150nm
Methane Cyclohexane Propane
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+ C_ +C _
*
C-C
_ C _
+ C  C-C
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   * (bonding  to anti-bonding  ) * (antibonding)

•   * occur in 200-700nm range. * (antibonding)
• Molar absorptivity: High
 max = 1000 - 10000. n (nonbonding)
Examples:
• Unsaturated compounds  (bonding)
• double or triple bonds
• aromatic rings
• Carbonyl groups  (bonding)
• azo groups
• Conjugated  electrons  max is high because the  and * orbitals
are in same plane and consequently the
probability of jump of an electron from  
Carbonyl * orbital is very high.
Azo
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   * (bonding  to anti-bonding  )
_
+
C C
_
*
+
+
C C 
_
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   * (bonding  to anti-bonding  ) * (antibonding)

•   * occur only in <150 nm range. * (antibonding)

n (nonbonding)
Examples: Carbonyl compounds

 (bonding)
 (bonding)
•   * and   * transitions: high-energy, accessible in

vacuum UV (lmax <150 nm). Not usually observed in
molecular UV-Vis.
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Transition between non-bonding atomic orbitals and anti-bonding molecular orbitals
They are of two types:

* (antibonding)
n  *
n  * * (antibonding)
n   * (non-bonding n to anti-bonding  ) n (nonbonding)
• n  * occur in 200-700nm range.

 (bonding)
 max = 10 - 100  (bonding)
• Examples:
• Compounds with double bonds involving unshared pair(s) of electrons
• Aldehydes, Ketones
• C=O, C=S, N=O etc.,
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n   * (non-bonding n to anti-bonding  )
_
+
C O *
+ _
+
n(py)
C O
_
+
C C 
_
46
• Spectra of aldehydes or ketones exhibit two

bands;
A High intense band at 200-250nm due to   *
A low intense band at 300nm due to n  * transition
• n  * transition is always less intense

because…….
• The electrons in the n-orbitals are situated perpendicular
to the plane of  bond and hence to the plane of * orbital.
n  to 
Consequently, the probability of jump of an electron

from n  * orbital is very low and in fact zero
according to symmetry selection rules.
But, vibrations of atoms bring about a partial overlap
between the perpendicular planes and so n  * 47
transition does occur, but only to a limited extent.
n  * (non-bonding n to anti-bonding ) * (antibonding)
* (antibonding)
• Excitation of an electron in an unshared
pair on Nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur or
halogens to an antibonding  orbital is
called n  * transitions. n (nonbonding)
• n   * occur in 150-250nm range.

 (bonding)
max = 100 - 3000  (bonding)
Example:
Methanol lmax = 183nm ( = 500)
1-Iodobutane lmax = 257nm ( = 486)
Trimethylamine lmax = 227nm ( = 900)
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n  * (non-bonding n to anti-bonding )
+ C_ +N _
*
C-N
_
C N n
+
_ C + N _  C-N
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   * (bonding  to anti-bonding  )
* (antibonding)
   * (bonding  to anti-bonding  ) * (antibonding)
n   * (non-bonding n to anti-bonding  )
n (nonbonding)
n  * (non-bonding n to anti-bonding )
 (bonding)
 (bonding)
Energy required for various transitions obey the order:   * > n  * >   *> n  *
50
• From the molecular orbital diagram it is clear that, In all compounds other than
alkanes there are several possible electronic transitions that can occur with different
energies.
*
  * alkanes 150 nm
*
  * carbonyls 170 nm
Energy   * unsaturated compounds 180 nm

n If conjugated
n  * O, N, S, halogens 190 nm
 n  * carbonyls 300 nm
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Selection Rules
• Not all transitions that are possible in UV region are not generally observed.
• For an electron to transition, certain quantum mechanical constraints apply – these
are called “selection rules”.
The selection rules are,

• Rule - 1:The transitions which involve an change in the spin quantum number of an
electron during the transition are not allowed to take place or these are
“forbidden”.
• Rule - 2: singlet –triplet transitions are forbidden

Multiplicity of states (2S+1); Where, S is total spin quantum number.
• Singlet state: have electron spin

paired
• Triplet state: have two spins parallel
• Here,
• For excited singlet state: S=0; therefore, 2S+1=1 - transition allowed
• For excited triplet state: S=1; therefore, 2S+1=3 - transition forbidden
52
Selection Rules
Rule - 3: Symmetry of electronic states; n  * transition in formaldehyde is

forbidden by local symmetry. i.e., Energy is always a function of molecular
geometry.
In formaldehyde (H2C=O),
In n  * excited state an electron arrives at the antibonding  orbital,

while the electron pair in the bonding  orbital is still present.
Due to the third antibonding  electron, the C=O bond becomes

weaker and longer.
In the   * excited configuration, the situation is somewhat worse

because there is only one  electron in the bonding orbital, while the
other  electron is anti-bonding (i.e. *).
Consequently, the excited state bond lengths will be longer than a

genuine C=O double bond but shorter than a  -type single C-O
bond.
In other words, these excited states will have their energy minima
somewhere in between that of H2C=O and H3C-OH.
• To further complicate matters, “forbidden” transitions are sometimes observed (albeit at low intensity) due
to other factors. 53
Franck and Condon Principle
• Electronic transitions will take place only when the inter-nuclear distances are not
significantly different in the two states and where the nuclei have little or no velocity.
• Thus, the forbidden transitions may arise when the inter-nuclear distances are
significantly different in the two states and where the nuclei have significant velocity.
Franck–Condon principle is the approximation that an electronic transition

is most likely to occur without changes in the positions of the nuclei in the
molecular entity and its environment.
54
Origin and General appearance of UV bands
• Electronic spectra is a graphical output of transitions between electronic energy

levels.
• We know that, electronic transitions are accompanied by changes in both vibrational

and rotational states.
• The wavelength of absorption depends on the energy difference between

bonding/antibonding and non-bonding orbitals concerned.
• When gaseous sample is irradiated with UV - Visible light and the spectrum is
recorded, a spectrum with number of closely spaced fine structure line is obtained.
• When the electronic spectrum of a solution is recorded, a absorption band is obtained

in which closely spaced fine lines are merging together due to the solvent-solute
interaction.
• Usually electronic absorption spectrums are broader bands than IR or NMR bands.
55
Designation of UV bands
• The absorption bands in the UV - Visible spectrum may be designated either by using
electronic transitions [  *,   *,   *, n  *, n  *] or the
letter designation as given below.
R – bands (German, radikalartig)
• The bands due to n * transitions of single chromophoric groups are referred to as

the R - Bands.
• Example: Carbonyl group, Nitro group
• Shows low molar absorptivity ( max<100) and hypsochromic shift with an increase in
solvent polarity.
K – bands (German, konjugierte)
• The bands due to  * transitions in molecules containing conjugated  systems

are referred to as the K – Bands.
• Example: Butadiene, mesityl oxide
• They show high molar absorptivity ( max<10,000).
56
Designation of UV bands
B and E - bands
• The B and E bands are characteristic of the spectra of aromatic or heteroaromatic

molecules.
Examples:
• All benzenoid compounds exhibit E and B
bands representing   * transitions.
• In benzene, E1 and E2 bands occur near

180nm and 200nm respectively and their
molar absorptivity varies between ( max =
2000 to  max = 14000).
• The B-band occurs in the region from 250nm

to 255nm as a broad band containing
multiple fine structure and represents a
symmetry-forbidden transition which has
finite but low probability due to forbidden
transitions in high symmetrical benzene
molecule.
• The vibrational fine structure appears only in
the B-band and disappears frequently in the
more polar solvents. 57
Chromophores
The coloured substances owe their colour to the presence of one or more unsaturated
groups responsible for electronic absorption. These groups are called chromophores.
Examples: C = C, C=C, C = N, C=N, C = O, N = N, etc..
Chromophores absorb intensely at the short wavelength
But, some of them (e.g, carbonyl) have less intense bands at higher wavelength due to
the participation of n electrons.
Methyl orange
58
Chromophores: examples
Chromophore Example Excitation λmax, nm ε Solvent
C=C Ethene Π __> Π* 171 15,000 hexane
C≡C 1-Hexyne Π __> Π* 180 10,000 hexane
n __> Π* 290 15 hexane

C=O Ethanal
Π __> Π* 180 10,000 hexane
n __> Π* 275 17 ethanol

N=O Nitromethane
Π __> Π* 200 5,000 ethanol
C-X; X=Br Methyl bromide n __> σ* 205 200 hexane

X=I Methyl Iodide n __> σ* 255 360 hexane
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Auxochromes
An auxochromes is an auxillary group which interact with chromophore and deepens
colour; its presence causes a shift in the UV or visible absorption maximum to a longer
wavelength
Examples: NH2, NHR and NR2, hydroxy and alkoxy groups.
Property of an auxochromic group:

• Provides additional opportunity for charge delocalization and thus provides smaller
energy increments for transition to excited states.

• The auxochromic groups have atleast one pair of non-bonding electrons (lone pair)
that can interact with the  electrons and stabilizes the  * state
60
Auxochromes: examples
Auxochrome Unsubstitued l max (nm) Substituted chromophore l max

chromophore (nm)
-CH3 H2C=CH-CH = CH2 217 H2C=CH-CH=CHCH3 224
-OR H3C-CH=CH-COOH 204 H3C-C(OCH3) = CHCOOH 234
-C1 H2C=CH2 175 H2C = CHCl 185
61
Bathochromic shift (Red shift) - l max to longer wavelength
Shift of an absorption maximum to longer wavelength is called bathochromic shift.
Occurs due to change of medium (  * transitions undergo bathochromic shift with an

increase in the polarity of the solvent)
OR
when an auxochrome is attached to a carbon-carbon double bond
Example:
Ethylene : l max = 175nm
1-butene / isobutene : l max = 188 nm
The bathochromic shift is progressive as the number of alkyl groups increases.
62
Hypsochromic shift (Blue shift) - l max to Shorter wavelength
Shift of absorption maximum to shorter wavelength is known as hypsochromic shift.
Occurs due to change of medium (n  * transitions undergo hypsochromic shift with an

increase in the polarity of solvent)
OR
when an auxochrome is attached to double bonds where n electrons (eg: C=O) are
available
Example: Acetone
lmax = 279nm in hexane
lmax = 264.5nm in water
This blue shift results from hydrogen bonding which lowers the energy of the n orbital.
63
Hyperchromic effect - increased ( max) absorption intensity
It is the effect leading to increased absorption intensity
Example: intensities of primary and secondary bands of phenol are increased in

phenolate
Compound Primary band Secondary band

l max (nm)  max l max (nm)  max
Phenol C6H5OH 210 6200 270 1450
Phenolate anion C6H5O- 235 9400 287 2600
64
Hypochromic effect - decreased ( max) absorption intensity
It is the effect leading to decreased absorption intensity
Example: intensities of primary and secondary bands of benzoic acid are decreased in
benzoate
Compound Primary band Secondary band

l max (nm)  max l max (nm)  max
Benzoic acid C6H5COOH 230 11600 273 970
Benzoate C6H5COO- 224 8700 268 560
65
Effect of substituents on l max and  max
Graphically, Shift to increased

 max
Shift to shorter Shift to Longer

l max l max
Shift to decreased
 max
66
Isosbestic point
A point common to all curves produced in the spectra of a compound taken at various
pH values is called isosbestic point.
If one absorbing species, X, is converted to another absorbing species, Y, in a
chemical reaction, then the characteristic behaviour shown in the figure below is
observed.
If the spectra of pure X and

pure Y cross each other at any
wavelength, then every
spectrum recorded during this
chemical reaction will cross at
the same point, called an
isosbestic point. The
observation of an isosbestic
point during a chemical
reaction is good evidence that
only two principal species are
present.
Example: Absorption spectrum of 3.7×10-4 M methyl red as a function of pH between pH 4.5 and 7.1
The aniline-anilinium or phenol-phenolate conversion as a function of pH can demonstrate the

presence of the two species in equilibrium by the appearance of an isosbestic point in the UV
spectrum. 67
UV Spectroscopy (Electronic Spectra) - Terminologies
Beer-Lambert Law A =  .c.l

Absorbance A, a measure of the amount of radiation that is absorbed
Molar absorptivity  , absorbance of a sample of molar concentration in 1 cm cell.
Extinction coefficicent An alternative term for the molar absorptivity.
concentration c, concentration in moles / litre
Path length l, the length of the sample cell in cm.
l max The wavelength at maximum absorbance
 max The molar absorbance at l max
Band Term to describe a uv-vis absorption which are typically broad.
HOMO Highest Occupied Molecular Orbital
LUMO Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital
Chromophore Structural unit responsible for the absorption.
A group which extends the conjugation of a chromophore by
Auxochrome
sharing of nonbonding electrons
Bathochromic shift The shift of absorption to a longer wavelength.
Hypsochromic shift shift of absorption to a shorter wavelength
Hyperchromic effect An increase in absorption intensity
Hypochromic effect A decrease in absorption intensity
point common to all curves produced in the spectra of a compound
Isosbestic point 68
taken at various pH
Instrumentation
log(I0/I) = A
UV-VIS sources I0 I1
sample
200 700
detector
l, nm
I
monochromator/
reference
beam splitter optics I0 I2
69
Instrumentation…
Radiation source, monochromator and detector
Two sources are required to scan the entire UV-VIS band:

Deuterium lamp – covers the UV – 200-330
Tungsten lamp – covers 330-700
The lamps illuminate the entire band of UV or visible light; the

monochromator (grating or prism) gradually changes the small bands of
radiation sent to the beam splitter
The beam splitter sends a separate band to a cell containing the sample
solution and a reference solution
The detector (Photomultiplier, photoelectric cells) measures the difference

between the transmitted light through the sample (I) vs. the incident
light (I0) and sends this information to the recorder
70
Sample Handling
Virtually all UV spectra are recorded solution-phase
Only quartz is transparent in the full 200-700 nm range;

plastic and glass are only suitable for visible spectra 380 – 800nm
Concentration: 0.1 to 100mg

10-5 to 10-2 molar concentration may safely be used
Percentage of light transmitted: 20% to 65%

At high concentrations, amount of light transmitted is low, increasing the
possibility of error
A typical sample cell (commonly called a cuvet):

Cells can be made of plastic, glass or quartz
(standard cells are typically 1 cm in path length)
71
Solvents
• Solvents must be transparent in the region to be observed

• solvents must preserve the fine structure
• solvents should dissolve the compound
• Non-polar solvent does not form H-bond with the solute (and the spectrum is
similar to the spectrum of compound at gaseous state)
• Polar solvent forms H-bonding leading to solute-solvent complex and the fine
structure may disappear.
• The wavelength from where a solvent is no longer transparent is termed as cutoff
Common solvents and cutoffs: nm
acetonitrile 190
chloroform 240
cyclohexane 195
1,4-dioxane 215
95% ethanol 205
n-hexane 201
methanol 205
isooctane 195
water 190
72
Factors affecting the position of UV bands – 1. Non-conjugated alkenes
• A  * transition can occur in simple non-conjugated alkene like ethene and

other alkenes with isolated double bonds below 200 nm.
*
73
Factors affecting the position of UV bands – 1. Non-conjugated alkenes…
• Alkyl substitution of parent alkene moves the absorption to longer wavelengths.
• From l max di-, tri & tetra substituted double bonds in acyclic and alicyclic
systems can be identified
74
Factors affecting the position of UV bands – 1. Non-conjugated alkenes…
• This bathochromic effect of alkyl substitution is due to the extension of the

chromophore, in the sense that there is a small interaction, due to hyperconjugation,
between the  electrons of the alkyl group and the chromophoric group.
H
Methyl groups also cause a
C bathochromic shift, even though they
H
C C H
are devoid of p-or n-Electrons
This effect is thought to be through what

is termed “HYPERCONJUGATION” or
sigma bond resonance
“HYPERCONJUGATION”
• This effect is progressive as the number of alkyl groups increases.

• The intensity of alkene absorption is essentially independent of solvent because of the
non-polar nature of the alkene bond.
75
Factors affecting the position of UV bands – 2. Conjugated Dienes
A conjugated system requires lower energy for the  * transition than an

unconjugated system.
Example:
Ethylene and Butadiene
In conjugated butadiene (l max=217nm;  max = 21000)

 and * orbitals have energies much closer together than those in ethylene,
resulting in a lower excitation energy
Ethylene has only two orbitals;

one ground state  bonding orbital and one excited state * antibonding orbital.
The energy difference () between them is about 176 kcal/mole.
76
Factors affecting the position of UV bands
[i.e., From MOT, two atomic p orbitals, from two sp2 hybrid carbons combine to form two
MOs  and * in ethylene,]
 2*
p p
1 
77
Factors affecting the position of UV bands - 2. Conjugated Dienes
In butadiene, 4 p orbitals are mixing and 4 MOs of an energetically symmetrical distribution

compared to ethylene.
Therefore, the following  and * for ethylene and butadiene will be obtained.
 4
*
 2*
 3
*
 2
 1 
 1
Ethylene Butadiene 78
Butadiene, however, with four  electrons has four available  orbitals, two bonding (1 and 2) and two
antibonding (*3 and *4) orbitals.
The 1 bonding orbital encompasses all the four  electrons over the four carbon atoms of the butadiene
system and is somewhat more stable than a single  bonding orbital in ethylene.
The 2 orbital is also bonding orbital, but is of higher energy than the 1 orbital.
The two * orbitals (*3 and *4) are respectively, more stable ((*3) and less stable (*4) than the *
orbital of ethylene.
Energy absorption, with the appearance of an absorption band, can thus occur by a 2 (bonding)  (*3
(antibonding transition. HOMO to LUMO), the energy difference of which (136 kcal/mole) is less than that
of the simple * transition of ethylene (176 kcal/mole) giving a lmax= 217 nm; (i.e., at a longer
wavelength).
It is to be expected that the greater the number of bonding  orbitals, the lower will be the energy
between the highest bonding  orbital and the lowest excited * orbital.
The obvious extension of this in terms of lmax is that the greater the number of conjugated double bonds,
the longer the wavelength of absorption.
79
 4
*
 2*
 3
*
136 kcal/mole
 = 176 kcal/mole
 2
 1 
 1
E for the HOMO  LUMO transition is REDUCED

80
Extending this effect out to longer conjugated systems the energy

gap becomes progressively smaller: For example
Energy Lower energy = Longer wavelengths
ethylene
butadiene
hexatriene
octatetraene 81
Factors affecting the position of UV bands - 2. Conjugated Dienes - Types
• Acyclic dienes: 1,3-Butadiene with the structural formula
• Homo-annular conjugated dienes: Both conjugated double bonds are in same ring
• Hetero-annular dienes: Conjugated double bonds are not present in same ring
82
• Exocyclic and Endocyclic double bond:
Endocyclic
double bond
Exocyclic
double bond
83
1. Acyclic diene or Heteroannular diene
• Most acyclic dienes have transoid conformation;

• i.e. trans disposition of double bonds about a single s-trans
bond. Base l max=217 nm
• Base l max=217 nm ( max = 5000-20000).  max = 5000-20000
• Heteroannular diene, is a conjugated system in which the
A B
two double bonds are confined to two different rings.
Base l max=214 nm
• Base lmax= 214 nm (max = 5000-20000).
 max = 5000-20000
84
2. Homoannular diene
In homoannular diene, the two conjugated double bonds are Base l max=253 nm
confined to a single ring.  max = 5000-8000
i.e., the cyclic dienes are forced into an s-cis (cisoid) conformation.
Base lmax= 253 nm (max = 5000-8000).
Homoannular dienes contained in other ring sizes possess different s-cis

base absorption values.
Example:
Cyclopentadiene; lmax=228nm
Cycloheptadiene; lmax= 241nm
85
When two or more C=C units are conjugated,

The energy difference E between the highest bonding  orbital (HOMO) and the
lowest excited * orbital (LUMO) becomes small and results in a shift of lmax to
longer wavelength i.e., Bathochromic shift.
This concept helps to distinguish between the two isomeric diens,
1,5-hexadiene and 2, 4- hexadoeme, from the relative positions of lmax.
H2C=CH-CH2-CH2-CH=CH2 CH3-CH=CH-CH=CH-CH3
1,5-Hexadiene 2,4-Hexadiene
(non-conjugated diene) (conjugated diene)
lmax = 178 nm lmax = 227 nm
86
87
As the number of double bonds in conjugation increases, E for the excitation of

an electron continues to become small and consequently there will be a
continuous increase in the value of lmax
Example:
l max = 217 253 220 227 227 256 263 nm
Longer wavelengths = Lower energy
88
Factors affecting the position of UV bands - 2. Conjugation… with hetero atoms
Conjugation with a heteroatom [N, O, S, X] moves the (  *) absorption of

ethylene to longer wavelengths
Example: CH2=CH-OCH3 (lmax=190nm) - max~10000

CH2=CH-NMe2 (lmax=230nm) - max~10000
Methyl vinyl sulphide absorbs at 228 nm (max=8000)
Here we create 3 MOs – A

this interaction is not as
Y 3*
strong as that of a
conjugated -system * Y2
Energy

nA
89
Y1
Factors affecting the position of UV bands – 3. Effect of Geometrical isomerism - Steric effect
• In compounds where geometrical isomerism is possible.
Example:
trans - stilbene absorbs at longer wavelength [l max=295 nm] (low energy)
cis - stilbene absorbs at shorter wavelength [l max=280 nm] (high energy) due to the steric
effects.
• Coplanarity is needed for the most effective overlap of the  - orbitals and increased ease of
the
  * transition. The cis-stilbene is forced into a nonplanar conformation due to steric
effects.
90
Factors affecting the position of UV bands –
4. Effect of steric hindrance on coplanarity (steric inhibition of resonance)
• UV spectroscopy is very sensitive to distortion of the chromophore and consequently the steric
repulsions which oppose the coplanarity of conjugated -electron systems can easily be
detected by comparing its UV spectrum with that of a model compound.
• Distortion of the chromophore may lead to RED or BLUE shifts depending upon the nature of
the distortion.
Example-1: Distortion leading to RED shift
The strained molecule Verbenene

exhibits l max=245.5nm whereas the usual
calculation shows at l max=229 nm. Verbenene
Actual; l max =245.5nm
Calculated; l max =229nm
91
4. Effect of steric hindrance on coplanarity (steric inhibition of resonance)….
Example-2: Distortion leading to BLUE shift
The diene shown here might be expected to

have a maximum at 273nm.
But, distortion of the chromophore,

presumably out of planarity with consequent
loss of conjugation, causes the maximum
to be as low as 220nm with a similar loss in Actual; l max =220nm
intensity (max =5500).
Calculated; l max =273nm
92
4. Effect of steric hindrance on coplanarity (steric inhibition of resonance)…..
Example-3: trans-azobenzene and the sterically restricted cis-azobenzene
H H
Absorption of Azobenzene (in ethanol)

  * n  *
Example transition transition
l max  max l max  max
trans-isomer 320 21300 443 510
cis-isomer 281 5260 433 1520
Such differences between cis and trans

isomers are of some diagnostic value
93
Factors affecting the position of UV bands – 5. Effect of Solvents
• The position and intensity of an absorption band is greatly affected by the

polarity of the solvent used for running the spectrum.
• Such solvent shifts are due to the differences in the relative capabilities of the
solvents to solvate the ground and excited states of a molecule.
• Non-polar compounds like Conjugated dienes and aromatic hydrocarbons exhibit

very little solvent shift,
94
Factors affecting the position of UV bands – 5. Effect of Solvents…
The following pattern of shifts are generally observed for changes to solvents of
increased polarity:
• , -Un saturated carbonyl compounds display two different types of shifts.

(i) n * Band moves to shorter wavelength (blue shift).
(ii)  * Band moves to longer wavelength (red shift)
95
, -Un saturated carbonyl compounds - For increased solvent polarity
• n * Band moves to shorter wavelength (blue shift).
In n  * transition the ground state is more polar than excited state. The
hydrogen bonding with solvent molecules takes place to a lesser extent
with the carbonyl group in the excited state.
Example: lmax= 279nm in hexane lmax= 264nm in water
B
* D
AB < CD
n
A
Non-polar solvent C
Polar solvent
Shorter wavelength
96

(ii)   * Band moves to longer wavelength (Red shift).
In    * the dipole interactions with the solvent molecules lower the energy
of the excited state more than that of the ground state. Thus, the value of lmax
in ethanol will be greater than that observed in hexane. i.e., * orbitals are
more stabilized by hydrogen bonding with polar solvents like water and
alcohol. Thus small energy will be required for such a transition and absorption
shows a red shift.
Example:
B
* D
AB > CD

A
Non-polar solvent C
Polar solvent
97
Longer wavelength

(iii) In general,
a) If the group (carbonyl) is more polar in the ground state than in the excited
state, then increasing polarity of the solvent stabilizes the non-bonding
electron in the ground state due to hydrogen bonding.
Thus, absorption is shifted to shorter wave length.
b) If the group (carbonyl) is more polar in the excited state, the absorption is
shifted to longer wavelength with increase in polarity of the solvent which
helps in stabilizing the non-bonding electrons in the excited state.
98
Factors affecting the position of UV bands – 6. Conformation and geometry in polyene systems
• The position of absorption depends upon the length of the conjugated system.
• Longer the conjugated system, higher will be the absorption maximum and larger
will be the value of the extinction coefficient.
• If in a structure, the  electron system is prevented from achieving

coplanarity, In long-chain conjugated polyenes, steric hindrance to coplanarity
can arise when cis-bonds are present.
• This is illustrated by the naturally occurring bixin (`all trans’ methyl carotenoid)
and its isomer with a central cis-double bonds.
• In the latter the long wavelength band is weakened and a diagnostically useful
`cis-band` probably due to partial chromophore, appears at shorter wavelength.
99
Absorption spectra of Unsaturated carbonyl compounds……. Enones
unsaturated systems incorporating N or O can undergo
n  * transitions in addition to   *
  * transitions; lmax~188 nm; max = 900

n  * transitions; lmax~285 nm; max = 15
Low intensity is due to the fact this transition is forbidden by the selection rules
it is the most often observed and studied transition for carbonyls
Similar to alkenes and alkynes,

non-substituted carbonyls undergo the   * transition in the vacuum UV
(lmax=188 nm; max=900)
Both this transitions are also sensitive to substituents on the carbonyl
100
* Remember, the   * transition is

allowed and gives a high , but lies
outside the routine range of UV
observation
n
The n  * transition is forbidden and
gives a very low e, but can routinely be
 observed
101
Carbonyls – n  * transitions (~285 nm);   * (188 nm)
*
It has been determined
from spectral studies,
n C O
that carbonyl oxygen
more approximates sp
rather than sp2 !
 O
CO transitions omitted for clarity
102
For auxochromic substitution on the carbonyl, pronounced hypsochromic (blue)

shifts are observed for the n  * transition (lmax):
O
293 nm
H
This is explained by the inductive
O withdrawal of electrons by O, N or
CH3 279 nm halogen from the carbonyl carbon – this
causes the n-electrons on the carbonyl
Blue shift
O oxygen to be held more firmly
Cl
235 nm
It is important to note this is different from
O
l max the auxochromic effect on   * which
214 nm extends conjugation and causes a
NH2
bathochromic shift
O
204 nm In most cases, this bathochromic shift is not
O enough to bring the   * transition into
the observed range
O
204 nm
103
OH
Conversely, if the C=O system is conjugated both the n  * and   * bands are
Bathochromically (Red) shifted
Here, several effects must be noted:
• the effect is more pronounced for   *
• if the conjugated chain is long enough, the much higher intensity

  * band will overlap and drown out the n  * band
• the shift of the n  * transition is not as predictable
For these reasons, empirical Woodward-Fieser rules for conjugated

enones are for the higher intensity, allowed   * transition
104
Conjugation effects are apparent; from the MO diagram for a conjugated enone:
Y 4*
* *
Y 3*
n n
Y2
 
Y1
O O
105
Absorption spectra of Alkanes - Miscellaneous
Alkanes – only posses -bonds and no lone pairs of electrons, so only the high
energy   * transition is observed in the far UV
This transition is destructive to the molecule, causing cleavage of the -bond
C C
*
 C C
106
Absorption spectra of Aliphatic compounds - Miscellaneous
Alcohols, ethers, amines and sulfur compounds – in the cases of simple, aliphatic
examples of these compounds the n  * is the most often observed transition;
like the alkane   * it is most often at shorter l than 200 nm
Note how this transition occurs from the HOMO to the LUMO
C N
* CN
C N
nN sp
3
C N anitbonding
orbital
 CN C N
107
Woodward – Fieser rules
• It is used for calculating λmax

• Calculated λmax differs from observed values by 5-6%.
• Effect of substituent groups can be reliably quantified by
use Woodward –Fieser Rule
• Separate values for conjugated dienes and trines and α-
β-unsaturated ketnones are available
Robert B. Woodward
Nobel Prize in Chemistry : 1965
108
Woodward – Fieser rules
Woodward-Fieser Rules
Woodward and the Fiesers performed extensive studies of terpene and

steroidal alkenes and noted similar substituents and structural features
would predictably lead to an empirical prediction of the wavelength for
the lowest energy   * electronic transition
This work was distilled by Scott in 1964 into an extensive treatise on the
Woodward-Fieser rules in combination with comprehensive tables and
examples – (A.I. Scott, Interpretation of the Ultraviolet Spectra of Natural
Products, Pergamon, NY, 1964)
A more modern interpretation was compiled by Rao in 1975 – (C.N.R.

Rao, Ultraviolet and Visible Spectroscopy, 3rd Ed., Butterworths, London,
1975)
109
Woodward – Fieser rules for Dienes
The rules begin with a base value for lmax of the chromophore being observed:
For acyclic butadiene = 217 nm

or 214 nm
The incremental contribution of substituents is added to this base value

from
the group tables:
Group Increment
Extended conjugation +30
Each exo-cyclic C=C +5
Alkyl +5
-OCOCH3 +0
-OR +6
-SR +30
-Cl, -Br +5
-NR2 +60
110
Woodward – Fieser rules for Dienes – Examples -1 & 2
Isoprene - acyclic butadiene = 217 nm
one alkyl subs. + 5 nm

Calculated value 222 nm
Observed value 220 nm
Allylidenecyclohexane - acyclic butadiene = 217 nm
one exocyclic C=C + 5 nm
2 alkyl subs. +10 nm

111
Woodward – Fieser rules for Dienes – Problem - 1
acyclic butadiene = 217 nm

Solution:
Group Increment
Extended conjugation +30 acyclic butadiene = 217 nm
Each exo-cyclic C=C +5 extended conjugation = +30 nm
Alkyl +5 Calculated value = 247 nm
-OCOCH3 +0
-OR +6
-SR +30
-Cl, -Br +5
112
-NR2 +60
Woodward – Fieser rules for Dienes – Example-3
113
Woodward – Fieser rules for Cyclic Dienes
Heteroannular (transoid) Homoannular (cisoid)
Base lmax = 214 Base lmax = 253
The increment table is the same as for acyclic butadienes with a couple additions:
Group Increment Group Increment
Additional homoannular +39 Extended conjugation +30
Where both types of Each exo-cyclic C=C +5
diene are present, the
one with the longer l Alkyl +5
becomes the base -OCOCH3 +0
-OR +6
-SR +30
-Cl, -Br +5
-NR2 +60 114
Woodward – Fieser rules for Cyclic Dienes – Example-4
1,2,3,7,8,8a-hexahydro-8a-methylnaphthalene
Heteroannular diene = 214 nm
3 alkyl subs. (3 x 5) = +15 nm
1 exo C=C = + 5 nm
115
Group Increment
Solution:
Ring residues /
Alkyl +5
Alkyl substitution 3x5 = + 15 nm
-OCOCH3 +0
Exocyclic C=C bond 1 x 5 = + 5 nm
-OR +6
-SR +30 Calculated value = 234 nm
-Cl, -Br +5 Observed value = 247 nm
-NR2 +60
116
117
heteroannular diene = 214 nm

abietic acid
4 alkyl subs. (4 x 5) +20 nm
1 exo C=C + 5 nm
C OH 239 nm
O
118
levopimaric acid homoannular diene = 253 nm

4 alkyl subs. (4 x 5) +20 nm
1 exo C=C + 5 nm
278 nm
C OH
O
119
Homoannular diene = 253 nm
Group Increment
Solution:
Additional homoannular +39
Homoannular diene = 253 nm
Extended conjugation 1 x 30 = +30 nm
Alkyl substitution 2x5 = + 10 nm
Alkyl +5
Calculated value = 293 nm
-OCOCH3 +0
-OR +6
-SR +30
-Cl, -Br +5
-NR2 +60 120
121
Woodward – Fieser rules for Dienes – Examples – 9,10 & 11
122
Woodward – Fieser rules for Cyclic Dienes – PRECAUTIONS
Be careful with your assignments – three common errors:
This compound has three exocyclic

double bonds; the indicated bond is
exocyclic to two rings
This is not a heteroannular diene; you would

use the base value for an acyclic diene
Likewise, this is not a homooannular diene;

you would use the base value for an acyclic
diene
123
Woodward – Fieser rules for Enones
   g  
 C C C  C C C C C
O O
Group Increment
6-membered ring or acyclic enone Base 215 nm
5-membered ring parent enone Base 202 nm
Acyclic dienone Base 245 nm
Double bond extending conjugation 30

Alkyl group or ring residue , , g and higher 10, 12, 18
-OH , , g and higher 35, 30, 18
-OR , , g,  35, 30, 17, 31
-O(C=O)R , ,  6
-Cl ,  15, 12
-Br ,  25, 30
-NR2  95
Exocyclic double bond 5 124
Homocyclic diene component 39
Aldehydes, esters and carboxylic acids have different base values than ketones
Unsaturated system Base Value
Aldehyde 208
With  or  alkyl groups 220
With , or , alkyl groups 230
With ,, alkyl groups 242
Acid or ester
With  or  alkyl groups 208
With , or , alkyl groups 217
Group value – exocyclic , double bond +5
Group value – endocyclic , bond in 5 or 7 membered ring +5
125
Unlike conjugated alkenes, solvent does have an effect on lmax
These effects are also described by the Woodward-Fieser rules
Solvent correction Increment
Water +8
Ethanol, methanol 0
Chloroform -1
Dioxane -5
Ether -7
Hydrocarbon -11
126
Woodward – Fieser rules for Enones – Examples – 12 & 13
Some examples – keep in mind these are more complex than dienes
O enone =
cyclic 215 nm
2 x - alkyl subs. (2 x 12) +24 nm
Experimental value 238 nm
cyclic
R enone = 215 nm
extended conj. +30 nm
-ring residue +12 nm -ring
residue +18 nm exocyclic double bond + 5 nm
280 nm
O
Experimental 280 nm
127
Woodward – Fieser rules for Enones – Problem – 4
   g  
O O
Group Position Increment


-OH , , g and higher 35, 30, 18
-OR , , g,  35, 30, 17, 31
-O(C=O)R , ,  6
-Cl ,  15, 12
-Br ,  25, 30
-NR2  95
128
Exocyclic double bond 5
Woodward – Fieser rules for Enones – Solution for Problem – 4
   g  
O O
Group Increment

-OH , , g and higher 35, 30, 18
-OR , , g,  35, 30, 17, 31
-O(C=O)R , ,  6
-Cl ,  15, 12
-Br ,  25, 30
-NR2  95
129
Exocyclic double bond 5
Woodward – Fieser rules for Enones – Example – 14
130
UV Spectroscopy – For Assignment
1. Absorption spectra of Polyenes – Lycopene, Carotene etc..
2. Woodward Fieser rules for Polyenes – Rules and calculation for atleast 2 polyenes
3. Applications of UV spectra - with specific examples
131
UV Spectroscopy - References
1. Spectroscopy of Organic Compounds, by P.S. Kalsi, 2nd Edition, (1996), pp.7–50.
2. Organic Spectroscopy: Principles and Applications, by Jag Mohan, 2nd Edition,

(2009), pp.119–152.
3. Spectrometric Identification of Organic Compounds, by Silverstein, Bassler,

Morrill, 5th Edition, (1991), pp. 289–315.
4. Introduction to Spectroscopy, by Pavia, Lampman, Kriz, 3rd Edition, (2001),

pp.353-389.
5. Applied Chemistry, by K. Sivakumar, Ist Edition, (2009), pp.8.1–8.14.
6. Instrumental Methods of Chemical Analysis, by Gurdeep.R. Chatwal, Sham

Anand, Ist Edition, (1999), pp.180-198.
7. Selected Topics in Inorganic Chemistry, by Wahid U. Malik, G.D. Tuli, R.D.

Madan, (1996).
8. Fundamentals of Molecular Spectroscopy, by C.N. Banwell, 3rd Edition, (1983).

132
9. www.spectroscopyNOW.com
133
Good Luck!
Dr. K. SIVAKUMAR
Department of Chemistry
134
SCSVMV University
chemshiva@gmail.com

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Phil (Chemistry) Unit: I

MPC102 – PHYSICAL METHODS IN CHEMISTRY

Electromagnetic wave parameters:

Wavelength is expressed in nanometers (nm)

Electromagnetic wave parameters:

Frequency is expressed in Hertz (Hz)

Electromagnetic wave parameters:

Wave number (n ): Wave number is the number of waves per cm.

Wavelength, Wave number and Frequency are interrelated as,

c is velocity of light in vacuum. i.e., 3 x 108 m/s

EM radiation Spectral method Radiation source

Gamma rays Gamma spec. gamma-emitting nuclides

Synchrotron Radiation Source (SRS),

Absorption spectrum of an atom; Hydrogen

Energy levels in atom; Hydrogen

But, the absorption spectrum of a molecule is highly complicated with closely

Energy levels in molecule Absorption spectrum of a molecule; Eg: H2O

The radiation energies absorbed by molecules may produce Rotational,

Example: Rotating HCl molecule

Infrared radiations bring about changes in the vibration modes (stretching,

Example: Cl2 in ground and excited states

Cl2 in Ground state

Cl2 in Excited state

The Ultraviolet region may be divided as follows,

1. Far (or Vacuum) Ultraviolet region [10 – 200 nm]

2. Near (or Quartz) Ultraviolet region [200 – 380 nm]

3. Visible region [380 - 800 nm]

Far (or Vacuum) Ultraviolet region [10 – 200nm]

Near (or Quartz) Ultraviolet region [200 - 380nm]

systems occurs in 200 – 380nm

Example for  conjugation Benzene

Visible region [380 – 800nm]

• Electromagnetic spectral region from 380 – 800nm is termed as “visible region”

•Violet : 380 - 420 nm

• If a particular electronic transition matches the energy of a certain band

• The remaining UV - Visible light passes through the sample and is

• From this residual radiation a spectrum is obtained with “gaps” at these

fraction of the incident light absorbed is proportional to the number of

 max Intensity of absorption is directly proportional to the transition probability

l max wavelength of light corresponding to maximum absorption is designated as l max and

If spectrum of compound shows, Absorption band of

If the compound is colored, there may be at least 4 to 5 conjugated chromophores and

If  max = 10,000 - 20,000; generally a simple , -unsaturated ketone or diene

Bands with  max < 100 represent n  * transitions.

molar absorptivities vary by orders of magnitude:

Extended the concepts

• Absorption of UV - Visible radiation by an organic molecule leads to

• Electron transitions generally occur in between a occupied bonding or lone

• The energy difference between various energy levels, in most organic

According to Molecular Orbital Theory

One antibonding orbital without

One bonding orbital

According to Molecular Orbital Theory Higher energy

 - orbitals are the lowest energy occupied molecular orbitals

Atomic orbital Atomic orbital

• Due to the absorption of UV - Visible radiation by an organic molecule different

• The wavelength of UV - Visible radiation causing an electronic transition depends

• The lowest energy transition is typically that of an electron in the

Atomic orbital Atomic orbital

Transition between bonding molecular orbitals and anti-bonding molecular orbitals

They are of three types:

Transition between bonding molecular orbitals and anti-bonding molecular orbitals

   * (bonding  to anti-bonding  ) * (antibonding)

   * (bonding  to anti-bonding  ) * (antibonding)

n   * (non-bonding n to anti-bonding  ) n (nonbonding)

n  * (non-bonding n to anti-bonding ) * (antibonding)