Indirect methods in petroleum Exploration

 Radioactive method

Microbiological method

 Helium method

pH and Eh method

Halogen

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 Radio Active methods in H-C geaochemical exploration

It has been have observed repeatedly that the anomalously low radioactive
radiation were detected over petroleum basins correlates with existing
subsurface hydrocarbon accumulations.

The earth's crust contains uranium, thorium, and potassium, radio nuclides
randomly laid down during the planet's formation. These radio elements and
their progeny (decay products) emit highly energetic alpha ,beta and gamma
rays in the course of radioactive decay.

Subsurface hydrocarbons, however, through recognized geochemical

processes, terminate uranium's mobility in zones that lie above hydrocarbon
accumulations. By doing so, these processes reduce uranium's contribution to
the gamma radiation flux detected over hydrocarbon deposits.

Thus, the goal of radiometrics exploration is to search for such

nonrandom low radiation patterns over petroliferous terrane.

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Petroleum will remove uranium from ground water very efficiently, forming insoluble
organ metallic complexes. This process has been found to be irreversible. Whether in
the uranous or uranyl ionic form, uranium is easily absorbed onto organic materials
because of its large size and high density. Clay layers usually do not allow
migration or diffusion of uranium-rich fluids through them because of the
clay's ability to absorb most of the uranium present. Therefore, the likelihood of
uranium migrating vertically from any depth is not strong because of the absorptive
ability of clays and organic matter.

The presence of uranium has been demonstrated to be genetically related to the

organic matter in uranium-rich shales.. High concentrations of uranium are found
in association Uranium enrichment increases under a low sedimentation rate,
which allows more organic matter to accumulatewith asphalt and petroleum
deposits. The relationship is not just chemical scavenging of uranium by petroleum.
There is a strong link between radioactivity and the generation or sourcing of
hydrocarbons.

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The association of uranium with petroleum can be categorized as follows:-
1.Groundwater intrusion and water washing of a petroleum reservoir containing
uranium may lead to precipitation there.
2. Microbiological oxidation of vertically migrating hydrocarbons results in the
formation of solid bitumen. The bitumen becomes enriched in uranium and other
metals.
3. Hydrogen sulfide generated from petroleum will reduce uranium in
aqueous solution, causing precipitation, along with other metal compounds.

Increases in radon, helium, argon, radium, uranium, and thorium tend to occur in
association with petroleum deposits. An alternative concept for radiometric
anomalies is that uranium and other radioactive products present in the soil
in the area of petroleum microseepage are being subjected to reduction. An
increase in moisture will enhance this mechanism. The stronger the
reducing environment, the greater will be the increase in reduction of the
uranium and thorium.

 Areas with constant accumulation of surface water will show rapid

changes in radiometric measurements:-.

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areas that are poorly drained are natural sites for accumulation of
radioisotope salts.
Areas of excellent drainage allow for the removal of salts and thus have
low-intensity radiation.

 Changes in moisture content of the soil affect gamma emissions. The

greater the amount of moisture in the soil, the more likely that radiation
emissions will be suppressed. Snow-covered areas indicate radiation
profiles related to snow density and overall thickness on top of the soil.
Soil does not dry uniformly over a given area. Therefore, variations in moisture
content result in fluctuations in emissions as described before. It has been
found that soil moisture variations related to changes in vegetation caused
significant gamma-ray changes.

Weather Variations in barometric pressure due to changing weather can

suppress or enhance radiation emissions from the soil. Thus, changing
pressure can force recollection of all data across the survey area. Point
radiometric can avoid this problem by sampling at a base station through
time.

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Detection and Measurement,

The alpha-particle electroscope was one of the earliest means of measuring

radioactivity in petroleum. It was used to measure, Alpha-radiation surveying of
surface soil samples over oil fields.

Scintillation detectors are the most widely used form of radiometric

equipment in petroleum exploration. The scintillator relies on the detection of
radiation by materials known as phosphors. The phosphors are excited when
bombarded by radiation, and they then emit light. The majority of phosphors are
gases organic molecules, and solids such as ZnS and NaI. The suitability of
different phosphors to detect radiation is linked to their densities. For example,
ZnS is best for detecting alpha particles and NaI for detecting gamma rays..

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Point Method:-

The radiometric equipment for point surveys is placed on the ground at the
sample site. The detector is turned on and begins counting for a set period of
time, preferably I to 3min. This procedure is repeated three times at the sample
site. The data generally are recorded by hand on field sheets. The three readings
are average.

A difficulty with radiometries is repeatability, and this method, even though it is

the simplest, seemingly can overcome this problem. One of the critical
advantages of the point method is the use of a base station. A particular sample
site (or sites) is chosen as a base station for the entire survey. Here a count is
taken at the beginning of the day, at midday, and at the end of the day to
determine the changes caused by diurnal effects.

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The survey data are plotted on graph paper, and the base station data are
used to correct the results for diurnal variation. If major weather changes
occur, the operator must immediately resample the base station site.
Minor weather changes are discernible by normal sampling at the base
station during the day. Soil changes should also be noted as sampling
occurs; any distinct changes in composition ,moisture, and man-made
features should be noted on the operator's data sheet. The disadvantage
of this method lies in the difficulty in evaluating soils and other sources
that could cause or suppress a radiometric anomaly associated with a
petroleum accumulation continuous method continuous radiometries is the
most common form of radiometric measurement in current use.
.

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Continuous Methods:-
The radiometric equipment is usually mounted on a vehicle. Some systems
require a connection with the vehicle's odometer. This is recommended for
greater accuracy and for maintaining a uniform speed during surveying. An
advantage of this method is the real-time ability to repeat measurements to
delineate and detail an anomaly that is found during the survey. The mobility of
the method allows quick evaluation of a large area. The disadvantage is that it
requires the operator to stop the vehicle and evaluate the soils for verification of
the authority of the anomaly. Also, because of diurnal variations in intensity, the
anomaly may not be repeated a short time later.

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Integrated Radon Method
An integration method called track etch is
similar to the K-V fingerprint method for
soil gas. A hole is drilled from 0.3 to 0.9 m
(1 to 3 ft), and a plastic cup with a special
film is placed upside down (Fig. ).

The alpha-decay pattern of radon (which

is in the gas phase)impacts on the film
and leaves a damage tract. A protective lid
over the hole prevents some damage by
biological activity. The cup is left in place
for three to six weeks and then is
retrieved. The film is placed under a
microscope, and the density of the tracks
is determined. The number of etches is
proportional to the radon gas activity in the
atmosphere of the cup during the time
interval it was in place.

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Free-Air Radon Collection Method

This technique requires driving a hollow steel probe 1 to3 m into the soil. The
hollow portion of the probe has a measured volume. When the probe reaches
a pre determined depth, a syringe is inserted into the probe, and the hollow
portion is purged of atmospheric gases. A second sample is taken using a
sample container whose interior is a vacuum. Theoretically, the gases entering
the evacuated chamber are from the soil itself. The containers used for
collecting the gas at the surface vary from simple syringes to double-sealed
containers. The sample is then taken to the laboratory for analysis and
determination of the radon content of the gas.

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 Microbiological method
Microbiological prospecting of hydrocarbons is based on the detection of
anomalous population of hydrocarbon oxidizing bacteria in the surface
soils, indicates the presence of subsurface oil and gas accumulation. The
technique is based on the seepage of light hydrocarbon gases such as C1–C4
from the oil and gas pools to the shallow surface that provide the suitable
conditions for the development of highly specialized bacterial population. These
bacteria utilize hydrocarbon gases as their only food source and are found
enriched in the near surface soils above the hydrocarbon bearing
structures.

The methodology involves the collection of soil samples from the survey area,
packing, preservation and storage of samples in pre-sterilized sample bags under
aseptic and cold conditions till analysis followed by enumeration of hydrocarbon
utilizing bacteria such as methane, ethane, propane, and butane oxidizers.
The contour maps for the population density of hydrocarbon oxidizing bacteria
are drawn and the data can be integrated with geological, geochemical,
geophysical methods to evaluate the hydrocarbon prospect.

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.Microbiological Prospecting for Oil and Gas(MPOG) method success rate
has been reported to be90%.

It is based on the concept that the light gaseous hydrocarbons migrate upward
from subsurface petroleum accumulation by diffusion and are utilized by a variety
of microorganisms present in the sub-soil ecosystem. The hydrocarbon oxidizing
bacteria exclusively use these gaseous hydrocarbons as carbon source for their
metabolic activities and growth. These bacteria are mostly found to be enriched
in the shallow soils/sediments above hydrocarbon-bearing structures and
differentiate between hydrocarbon prospective area and non-prospective area.

The hydrocarbon micro seepage of oil and gas from mature source rocks and
reservoirs provide this food source. This method can be integrated with
geological, geochemical and geophysical methods, there by reducing the drilling
risks and achieving higher success in petroleum exploration is thus a valuable
and less expensive value addition exploration tool.

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 ) A disadvantage of the microbiological prospecting method is that it cannot
predict the depth of the reservoir, because it is a surface prospecting method
and directly depends of the migration of light hydrocarbon gases from oil and
gas reservoirs .Also this method cannot differentiate between biogenic and
thermogenic gases.

The microbiological surveys for prospecting of oil and gas involve collection
of suitable samples from sub soil horizon and detection. The sampling is
important since the validity of the test results depend largely on the manner in
which the samples are taken. There are two types of field surveys for
collection of soil samples, one is reconnaissance pattern and the other is
grid pattern. In reconnaissance surveys the samples were collected along the
existing roads, usually in an interval of 3 to 5 km. This type of surveys is
helpful in studying larger area. The grid surveys are mainly used for locating
hydrocarbon microseepage and also used for probable oil or gas well drilling
location point following correlation the results with other geoscientific studies.

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 The samples were sealed in the plastic bags with their sample
number and Global Positioning System (GPS)locations marked.

Disturbed or excavated areas, soils contaminated with hydrocarbon,

chemicals or animal waste, swamps and areas under water shed or
waterlogged areas were avoided for sampling. While collecting the samples,
rocks, coarse materials, plant residues, and animal debris have been
excluded.
The soil samples were collected using hollow metal pipe by manual
hammering. The soil samples of about 100 gm each were collected in pre-
sterilized polythene bags under aseptic conditions from a depth of about 0.5
to 1 m, the samples were transported to the laboratory and stored at 2°C to
4°C till analysis.

Alcanivorax borkumensis is an alkane-degrading marine bacterium which

naturally propagates and becomes predominant in crude-oil-containing
seawater when nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients are supplemented.

 Colwellia exist in deep water at high pressure under cold condition.

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  The bacteria, called oceanospirillales, munched through massive oil
plumes in the Gulf following the world's worst-ever spill .

 The Methylococcaceae are a family of bacteria that obtain their carbon and
energy from methane, called methanotrophs.

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A device for holding a culture of the methane-consuming
microorganisms can be inserted into the ground to an
appropriate depth and is constructed so that methane
and oxygen from the soil can diffuse to the culture to
cause growth of microorganisms. More specifically, the
device comprises an elongated housing (10) formed
from threaded tubing that is connected to a pointed
bottom closure member(I I) and a cap (12) at the top.
The bottom member is made of a porous material such
as sintered metal or hard sintered resin so that gases
from the earth can diffuse through the wall and enter the
housing. The bottom member is threaded to a ring (12),
and a screen(14)is held between the two pieces at the
shoulder (13). The screen is used for supporting a bed
(15)of a suitable absorbent for carbondioxide ,e.g., a
hydrous caustic soda supported on asbestos known as
Ascarite. The ring is threaded to the tube, and a
membrane (17)is held between the abutting shoulders at
(16).

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This membrane serves to support the culture medium
(18) that contains the methane-consuming
microorganisms. This membrane is made of a material
through which both methane and oxygen can readily
diffuse. Examples of such material are polyethylene,
polypropylene, and other synthetic organic resins.
Another membrane (19)is positioned between shoulder
(20)of the tube 10 and the top portion of the device.
This membrane, which can also be made of
polyethylene or other synthetic resins, will allow carbon
dioxide to diffuse through it. The membrane is used as a
support for an absorbent capable of absorbing carbon
dioxide which, in this case, is preferably an aqueous
solution of barium hydroxide as shown at (21). A pair of
insulated electrodes(22) is positioned in packing glands
in the upper wall of the device so as to be immersed in
the aqueous solution. These electrodes are employed
for determining any changes in the electrical
conductivity of the barium hydroxide solution and thus
indicate whether any change in the barium hydroxide
concentration has occurred

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 Helium method
Anomalous accumulations of helium have been identified in association with
petroleum deposits both in the reservoir itself and at the surface.

The majority of 4He is radiogenic and is derived from the alpha decay of naturally
occurring radio nuclides. The main sources of4Heare from the decay of 238U,
232Th, 206Pb, and208Pb.

The use of He as a possible pathfinder for uranium deposits, geothermal sources,

and petroleum accumulations has been documented by several researchers.

 The absence of a halo helium anomaly is thought to be caused by vertically

migrating hydrocarbons that are oxidized to carbon dioxide and calcite cement in the
soil. The calcite precipitates in the pores and theoretically inhibits helium migration to
the surface in the center of the field.

The edges of the anomaly have less petroleum gas migrating to the surface and,
subsequently, less oxidation of hydrocarbons occurs. The presence of faults and
fractures on the edges, at the center, or over the entire deposit may direct migration,
The halo may be the result of a concentration of pathways at the edges of the
accumulation.

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 Eh method

 The Eh of a solution is a measure of the oxidizing or reducing potential

(redox)of a chemical system. Oxidation or reduction involves transfer of electrons
from one chemical specie sto another, which can be measured in millivoltsor
volts.

Eh (oxidation-reduction potential or ORP) is measured in millivolts with

decreasing, or negative values (reduction), indicating the potential
presence of hydrocarbons and positive values indicating the absence of
hydrocarbons.

 Leaking hydrocarbon, in association with a microbial component, can initiate

diagenetic Eh/pH controlled reactions in the rocks and soils overlying
hydrocarbon accumulations.
.

 These reduction reactions cause the immobilization, or precipitation of

minerals in the stratigraphic column above the leaking reservoir.

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 pH Method

 pH is the measure of soil acidity or alkalinity. pH anomalies are present due

to the precipitation of carbonate related to the oxidation of near surface
hydrocarbons. Very low values usually indicate the absence of
hydrocarbons. High values indicate the halo produced by seeping
hydrocarbons.

A simple way to determine the pH of a soil is to create an aqueous mud in the

laboratory. Mix 50g of soil into 50mlof distilled water, stir constantly for I hr, and
measure the pH during that time period.

Most elements are less mobile in the alkaline environment and generally
precipitate out. pH is an important consideration in the adsorption capacity of
clays the introduction of petroleum into the soil environment destabilizes many
compounds and increases the solubility of the trace and major elements.

Many metal elements are highly soluble in acid solutions but will be
precipitated as oxides and hydroxides with decreasing pH.

.
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 Halogens
Halogens combine with organic compounds by halogenization or
photochemical reactions. Halogenization is a process that is thought to occur
primarily under synthetic or drastic environmental conditions and thus is not
usually present under normal circumstances .

 Iodine's has great affinity with methane and exist as CH3I , which has a half
life of more then 55 days.

 Iodine compounds are readily soluble. They are accumulated by organics,

clays, and carbon in the soil depending on their sorption capacity. It was studies
that reducing environments contain higher amounts of iodine than oxidizing envi-
ronments do.
 . Normal decomposition of organic matter causes an increase in iodine.

Iodine has a strong affinity with gold, petroleum, and naturally occurring
organic compounds. It has been used in petroleum exploration for a number of
years, especially by the Russians, later by the Canadians, and most recently by
the United States.

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