Chapter 9

 Changes in the organism that are heritable

and essentially permanent.

 the changing of the structure of a gene,

resulting in a variant form that may be
transmitted to subsequent generations,
caused by the alteration of single base units
in DNA, or the deletion, insertion, or
rearrangement of larger sections of genes or
chromosomes.
 The changes involving the whole genome or
the entire set of chromosomes.

 Polyploids – are organisms with the

cells containing 3 or more sets of
chromosomes or genomes.
 Autopolyploidy – polyploidy that is
due to the multiplication of one
basic genome.

 Allopolyploids – are organisms in

which the genomes making up the
multiple sets are not identical.
 Triploids (3X) – bananas, hyacinths,
winesap apples, European pears
 Tetraploids
(4X) – potato,
alfalfa, coffee,
peanuts
 Allotetraploids (4X)
 Nicotiana tabacum – 2n = 48
Allotetraploids (4X)
 Raphanobrassica – experimental
allotetraploid roduced by G.D.
Karpechenko (1927)
 Hybrid between raddish (Raphanus
sativus) and cabbage (Brassica
oleracea)
Allohexaploids
(6X)
 Triticum
aestivum
(bread wheat)
2n=42
 Common occurrence in plants
 47% of all angiosperms
 70% of the grasses

 Extremely rare among sexually

reproducing animals
 Autopolyploids
1. Increased individual cell size
2. Slower growth rate and later maturity
than diploids
3. Reduced fertility in varying degrees
4. Existence of an optimum range of
polyploidy beyond which growth may
be depressed with increasing
chromosome number.
 Allopolyploids
1. Fertile and possess many of the
physical characteristics of the
autopolyploids
2. Responsible for the formation of
new species
 Occurs when 1 or more chromosomes of
a normal set (genome) are lacking or are
present in excess.
 The nuclei will contain chromosomes
whose numbers are not multiples of the
genome.
 Incomplete genomes
 Changes in Chromosome Structure
 Deficiencies and Deletions
 Duplications or repeats
 Inversion
 Interchange or reciprocal translocation
 Gene Mutations
 Microlesions: Base Pair Substitution
 Frameshift mutations
 Mutator Genes
 Transposons or Jumping genes
 Forward Mutation
 Change from the wild type or normal
to a new mutant genotype.

 Reverse Mutation
 Mutant genotype is changed to wild
type
 The occurrence helps distinguish point
mutations from large mutational events like
deletions.

 Point mutation may cause small chemical

change without significant gain or loss of
genetic material would be more easily
reversible.

 Rule out deletions or insertions

 X-rays, protons, neutrons and alpha, beta and
gamma rays
 From radioactive sources like radium and cobalt-
90.
 Break the DNA strand since these are effective
in producing chromosome breaks
 Effective in killing viruses with single-stranded
DNA
 UV light can produce thymine dimers
(corrected by excision repair system)

 Misrepaired become mutations

 Chloral hydrate, acenapthene, nitrous acid,
acridine dyes, conchicine

 Base analogues (bromodeoxyuridine, 5-

bromouracil, 2-aminopurine)

 Alkylating agents (nitrogen mustard, ethyl

ethanesulfonate)
 Temperature shocks
 Result in higher frequency of polyploid cells in
plants

 Centrifugation
 Structural aberration of chromosome, can be
induced by centrifugation
 Removal of young shoots or axillary buds will
induce callus formation.

 From this callus tissue, shoots regenerate,

many of which are polyploids (tomato,
Nicotiana and cabbage)
 The naturally-occurring and the experimental
allopolyploids are products of interspecific or
intergeneric hybridization.