Properties of Fluids

Chapter 1 (Book 1)
Fluid: Liquids + Gases
Mechanics:
• Statics: the study of substances (fluids) at rest
• Kinematics: the study of substances (fluids) in motion
considering only velocities not the agents causing that
velocity or motion
• Dynamics: the study of substances (fluids) in motion by
considering their velocities, accelerations, forces,
energies, impulse, momentum, etc.

• Employs the same principles as that of solid mechanics.

However it is more difficult because there are no
separate elements to be distinguished
 1.1 Development of Fluid Mechanics
• Classical hydrodynamics: is largely a subject in
mathematics which deals with imaginary ideal fluids. The
results are of limited use.
• Hydraulics: consequently, in the past, engineers turned to
experiments, and from these developed empirical
formulas which supplied answers to practical problems.
This subjects was called hydraulics.
• Hydraulics was mainly confined to water and was limited
in scope. With development in aeronautics, chemical
engineering and the petroleum industries, the need arose
for a broader treatment. This has led to the combining of
classical hydrodynamics with the study of real fluids
(hydraulics).
• So, in fluid mechanics the basic principles of
hydrodynamics are combined with the experimental
techniques of hydraulics
 1.2 Distinction between a solid and a
fluid
Solid Fluid
Molecules are closer Molecules are some distance apart
Stronger attractive forces Weaker attractive forces
Fixed shape Variable shape (static fluid)
Tangential stresses are always present Tangential stresses depends upon the
magnitude of velocity
 1.3 Distinction between a gas and a
liquid
Gas Liquid
Far apart molecules Closer molecules
Highly compressible Almost incompressible
Expands indefinitely when external The cohesive forces does not allow it to
pressure is removed expand indefinitely when external
pressure is removed except vapor
pressure
Volume is a function of temperature and Under normal conditions, volume is
pressure dependent only on temperature and
independent of pressure
 Vapor and Gas
• A Vapor is gas whose temperature and
pressure are such that it is very near to the
liquid phase, e.g. steam.
• A Gas may be defined as a highly superheated
vapor; that is, its state is far removed from the
liquid phase, e.g. air.
 1.4 Density, Specific Weight, Specific
Volume and Specific Gravity
• The density ρ of a fluid is its mass per unit volume, or
Density = mass/volume
Mass= amount of matter contained (kg/lb)
1kg=2.204lb
ρ = m/V, kg/𝑚3
• It should be noted that density ρ is absolute since it
depends on mass which is independent of location.
• Use: to find out the mass of fluid
mass of fluid = density x volume occupied by that fluid
• Volume = length x width x height
 1.4 Density, Specific Weight, Specific
Volume and Specific Gravity
• The Specific Weight 𝛾 is the weight of fluid per unit volume. It is the
force exerted by gravity on a unit volume of fluid or
Specific weight = weight/volume
Weight=measurement of gravitational pull=m*g
𝑁 𝑘𝑁
𝛾= W/V, usually
𝑚3 𝑚3

• Specific weight is not an absolute quantity for it depends upon the

value of g which varies with location, primarily latitude and
elevation above mean sea level

• Use: it is used to find out weight of fluid

Weight of fluid = specific weight x volume of that fluid
• Volume = length x width x height
• 1.625 m/s2 on moon
• 9.780 …….at equator
• 9.832……. At poles
• Relation between density and specific weight
Specific Weight = weight/volume
Specific weight = (mass x Acc. due gravity)/Volume
Specific weight = mass/volume x Acc. due to gravity
𝛾= ρg or ρ = 𝛾 /g 1.1
 1.4 Density, Specific Weight, Specific
Volume and Specific Gravity
• Specific volume v is the volume occupied by a
unit mass of fluid. It is commonly applied to
gases and is usually expressed as
specific volume = volume/mass
𝑚3
v = V/m,
kg
Relationship between ρ and v
(reciprocal to each other)
v = 1/ρ 1.2
 1.4 Density, Specific Weight, Specific
Volume and Specific Gravity
• Specific gravity s of a liquid is the ratio of its density to that of pure water at standard
temperature. Physicists use 4 ℃ as the standard, but engineers often use 15 ℃.
Specific gravity of liquid = liquid density/water density
ρ
𝑠𝑙 = 𝑙
ρ𝑤
Or if g remains constant, then
ρ .𝑔 𝛾
𝑠𝑙 =ρ 𝑙 .𝑔 = 𝛾 𝑙
𝑤 𝑤
at standard temperature (Physicist use 4 ℃ as the standard, but engineers often use 15 ℃).

• Specific gravity s of a gas is the ratio of its density to that of either hydrogen or air at
some specified temperature and pressure, so
Specific gravity of gas = gas density / air or hydrogen density
ρ𝑔
𝑠𝑔 =ρ
𝑎,𝐻

Or if g remains constant, then

ρ𝑔 .𝑔 𝛾𝑔
𝑠𝑔 =ρ .𝑔 = 𝛾
𝑎,𝐻 𝑎,𝐻
at specified temperature and pressure
 1.4 Density, Specific Weight, Specific
Volume and Specific Gravity
• Summery
𝛾 = ρg or ρ = 𝛾 /g 1.1

v = 1/ ρ 1.2

ρ𝑙
𝑠𝑙 =
ρ𝑤
ρ𝑙 .𝑔 𝛾𝑙
𝑠𝑙 = = if g remains constant
ρ𝑤 .𝑔 𝛾𝑤

ρ𝑔
𝑠𝑔 =
ρ𝑎,𝐻

ρ𝑔 .𝑔 𝛾𝑔
𝑠𝑔 = = if g remains constant
ρ𝑎,𝐻 .𝑔 𝛾𝑎,𝐻
Under usual conditions on earth surface
• Density of water, ρ = 1000 kg/𝑚3
= 1 g/c𝑚3
= 1 Mg/𝑚3
𝑁
• Specific weight of water, 𝛾 = 9810
𝑚3
𝑘𝑁
= 9.81
𝑚3
• Specific gravity of water, s = 1
• Specific gravity of mercury, s = 13.55 or 13.6
 Illustrative Example 1.1
The specific weight of water at ordinary pressure and temperature is 9.81
𝑘𝑁
. The specific gravity of mercury is 13.55. Compute the density of water
𝑚3
and the specific weight and density of mercury.
Given:
𝑘𝑁 𝑁
𝛾𝑤 = 9.81 𝑚3= 9810 𝑚3
s𝑚 = 13.55
𝑚
g = 9.81
𝑠2
Required:
ρ𝑤 = ?
𝛾𝑚 = ?
ρ𝑚 = ?
Solution:
𝛾𝑤 𝑘𝑔
ρ𝑤 = = 9810/9.81 = 1000
𝑔 𝑚3
𝑘𝑁
𝛾𝑚 = s𝑚 . 𝛾𝑤 = 13.55 𝑥 9.81 = 132.93 𝑚 3
𝑘𝑔
ρ𝑚 = s𝑚 . ρ𝑤 = 13.55 𝑥 1000 = 13550
𝑚3
 Illustrative Example 1.1

Q#1: Suppose the specific weight of water at 14.7psi pressure and

𝑘𝑁 𝑘𝑁
15 C temperature is 1.81 3 at moon and 9.7 3 at equator. Suppose
𝑚 𝑚
the specific gravity of mercury is 3.55. Compute the density of water
and the specific weight and density of mercury at moon and
equator.

Q#2: what is difference between “Cubic-meter” and “meter cube”??

1.5 Compressible and Incompressible Fluids
• Compressible fluids: if density does not remain constant
e.g. gases
• Incompressible fluids: if density remains constant e.g.
liquids
• Although there is no such thing in reality as an
incompressible fluid, this term is applied where the change
in density with pressure is so small as to be negligible.
• Liquids are considered incompressible fluids, yet sound
waves move through water and water hammer
phenomenon represent compressibility of liquids.
• Gases are compressible. If pressure changes are negligible,
gases may also behaves as incompressible e.g. ventilation
system.
 1.6 Compressibility of Liquids
• The compressibility (change in volume due to change in pressure,
dv/dp) of a liquid is inversely proportional to its volume modulus of
elasticity, also known as the bulk modulus.
𝑑𝑣 1
- ∝
𝑑𝑝 𝐸𝑣

𝑑𝑣 𝑣
or - =
𝑑𝑝 𝐸𝑣
𝑣
𝐸𝑣 = − 𝑑𝑝
𝑑𝑣

Where v is specific volume

Assuming 𝐸𝑣 to have a value 2200 MN/𝑚2 , it may be seen that increasing
the pressure of water by 7 MN/𝑚2 will compress it only 1/314, or 0.3
percent, of its original volume. Therefore it is seen that the usual
assumption regarding water as incompressible is justified.
Volume modulus of mild steel is about 170,000MN/m2 and for water is
2,200MN/m2, but water is 80 times compressible as compared to steel.
Mercury is 8 times whilst nitric acid is 6 times compressible than water
 1.7 Specific Weight of Liquids
Unless otherwise specified or
implied by some specific
temperature being given, the value
to use for water in the problems in
𝑘𝑁
the text is 𝛾 = 9.81 3. Specific
𝑚
weight of some liquids is given in
Table 1.2.
We know that;
𝛾 = ρg
𝛾 ∝g if ρ remains constant
where g varies with location,
primarily latitude and elevation
above mean sea level
𝛾 ∝1/𝑇 𝑛
𝛾 ∝p
as shown in Figure 1.1

Figure 1.1
Specific weight g of pure water as a function of temperature and pressure
for the condition where g 32.2 ft/sec2 (9.81 m/s2).
 1.8 Equations of State for Gases
• There is no such thing as a perfect gas, but air and other real gases that are far removed from the liquid phase
may be so considered. For a perfect gas the equation of state is
𝑝𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇 (1.4)
where
𝑝 = absolute pressure, 𝜌 = density, 𝑣 = specific volume (1/𝜌)
R= a gas constant, the value of which depends upon the particular gas
T= absolute temperature in degrees Rankine or Kelvin
For air the value of R is 287 N.m/(kg.K). Eq. (1.4) may also be written
𝑝 𝑝 𝑔𝑝
= 𝑅𝑇 ⇒ 𝜌 = ⇒𝛾= (1.5)
𝜌 𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇
from which the 𝜌 and 𝛾 of any gas at any T and p can be computed if R and g are known.
• Avogadro’s law states that all gases at the same T and p under the action of a given value of g have the same
number of molecules per unit volume. If m denotes molecular weight then
𝑚1 𝑅1 = 𝑚2 𝑅2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
But this is strictly true for perfect gases only.
For perfect gas mR = 8312 N.m/(kg.K).
For real gases the values of mR ranges between 8140 and 8330 N.m/(kg.K) which is a variation of less than 3
percent.
• Another fundamental equation for a perfect gas is
𝑝𝑣 𝑛 = 𝑝1 𝑣1𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (1.6)
where n may have any nonnegative value from zero to infinity, depending upon the process to which the gas is
subjected.
For constant temperature process (isothermal), n = 1
For air and diatomic gases under isentropic process (frictionless adiabatic process), n = k = 1.4.
• By combining Eqs. (1.4) and (1.6), it is possible to obtain other useful relations such as
𝑇2 𝑣 𝑝
= ( 1 )𝑛−1 = ( 2 )(𝑛−1)/𝑛 (1.7)
𝑇1 𝑣2 𝑝1
 1.9 Compressibility of Gases
• 𝑝𝑣 𝑛 = 𝑝1 𝑣1𝑛 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (1.6)
Differentiating Eq. (1.6) npvn-1 dv+vn dp=0
𝑣
and putting dp in 𝐸𝑣 = − 𝑑𝑝 gives
𝑑𝑣
𝐸𝑣 = np
so that for an isothermal process of a gas 𝐸𝑣 =
p and for isentropic process 𝐸𝑣 = kp.
• Thus, at a pressure of 100 kPa, the isothermal
modulus of elasticity for a gas is 100 kPa, and
for air in an isentropic process it is 1.4 x 100
kPa.
 Illustrative Example 1.2
(a) Calculate the density, specific weight, and specific volume of oxygen at 40 ℃ and 100kPa, abs. (b) What would
be the temperature and pressure of this gas if it were compressed isentropically to 40 percent of its original
volume? (c) If the process described in (b) has been isothermal what would the temperature and pressure have
been?
Given:
T = 40 ℃= 313 K
p = 100 kPa, abs.
Oxygen gas
Required:
(a) 𝜌, 𝛾 and v = ?
(b) 𝑇1 and 𝑝1 = ? if oxygen is compressed isentropically to 40% of its original volume (if 𝑣1 = 0.4 𝑣)
(c) 𝑇1 and 𝑝1 = ? if oxygen is compressed isothermally to 40% of its original volume (if 𝑣1 = 0.4 𝑣)
Solution:
(a) For oxygen gas, m = 32
So mR = 8.312 kN.m/(kg K) ⇒ R = 8.312/32 = 0.26 kN.m/(kg K)
𝑚3
𝑝𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇 ⇒ 100 𝑣 = 0.26 𝑥 313 ⇒ 𝑣 = 0.814
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝑔
so 𝜌 = 1/v = 1/0.814 = 1.23
𝑚3
𝑁
And 𝛾 = 𝜌g = 1.23 x 9.81 = 12.07 3
𝑚
(b) For Isentropic process
𝑝𝑣 𝑘 = 𝑝1 𝑣1𝑘 ⇒ 100 (0.814)1.4 = 𝑝1 (0.40 𝑥 0.814)1.4 ⇒ 𝑝1 = 360.7 kPa, abs.
And 𝑝1 𝑣1 = 𝑅𝑇1 ⇒ 360.7 (0.40 𝑥0.814) = 0.26 𝑥 𝑇1 ⇒ 𝑇1 = 451.7 𝐾 = 187.7℃
(c) For isothermal process
𝑝𝑣 𝑛 = 𝑝1 𝑣1𝑛 ⇒ 100 (0.814)1 = 𝑝1 (0.40 𝑥 0.814)1 ⇒ 𝑝1 = 250𝑘𝑃𝑎, 𝑎𝑏𝑠.
And 𝑇1 = 𝑇 = 40℃ (isothermal process)
 Illustrative Example 1.3
Calculate the density, specific weight and specific volume of chlorine gas at
25℃ and pressure of 600 kN/𝑚2 ,abs (kilonewtons per square meter
absolute).
Given:
T = 25 ℃= 298 K
p = 600 kPa, abs.
Chlorine gas
Required:
𝜌, 𝛾 and v = ?
Solution:
For Chlorine gas, m = 71
So mR = 8.312 kN.m/(kg K) ⇒ R = 8.312/71 = 0.117 kN.m/(kg K)
𝑚3
𝑝𝑣 = 𝑅𝑇 ⇒ 600 𝑣 = 0.117 𝑥 298 ⇒ 𝑣 = 0.058
𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝑔
so 𝜌 = 1/v = 1/0.058 = 17.2
𝑚3
𝑁
And 𝛾 = 𝜌g = 17.2 x 9.81 = 169
𝑚3
 1.10 Ideal Fluids
• An ideal fluid is usually defined as a fluid in which
there is no friction; it is inviscid (its viscosity is zero).
Thus the internal forces at any section within it are
always normal to the section, even during motion. So
these forces are purely pressure forces. Although such
a fluid does not exist in reality, many fluids
approximate frictionless flow at sufficient distances
from solid boundaries, and so we can often
conveniently analyze their behaviors by assuming an
ideal fluid.
• In a real fluid, either liquid or gas, tangential or
shearing forces always develop whenever there is
motion relative to a body, thus creating fluid friction,
because these forces oppose the motion of one
particle past another. These friction forces give rise to a
fluid property called viscosity.
 1.11 VISCOSITY
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to
shear or angular deformation. Motor oil, for example,
has high viscosity and resistance to shear, is cohesive,
and feels “sticky,” whereas gasoline has low viscosity.
The friction forces in flowing fluid result from the
cohesion and momentum interchange between
molecules. Figure 2.3 indicates how the viscosities of
typical fluids depend on temperature. As the
temperature increases, the viscosities of all liquids
decrease, while the viscosities of all gases increase. This
is because the force of cohesion, which diminishes with
temperature, predominates with liquids, while with
gases the predominating factor is the interchange of
molecules between the layers of different velocities.
Thus a rapidly-moving gas molecule shifting into a
slower moving layer tends to speed up the latter. And a
slow-moving molecule entering a faster-moving layer
tends to slow down the faster-moving layer. This Figure: Trends in viscosity
variation with temperature.
molecular interchange sets up a shear, or produces a
friction force between adjacent layers. At higher
temperatures molecular activity increases, so causing
the viscosity of gases to increase with temperature.
 1.11 VISCOSITY (continued)
• Consider the classic case of two parallel plates (Fig.
1.4), sufficiently large that we can neglect edge
conditions, a small distance Y apart, with fluid filling
the space between. The lower plate is stationary,
while the upper one moves parallel to it with a
velocity U due to a force F corresponding to some
area A of the moving plate.
• At boundaries, particles of fluid adhere to the walls,
and so their velocities are zero relative to the wall.
This so-called no-slip condition occurs with all
viscous fluids. Thus in Fig. 1.4 the fluid velocities
must be U where in contact with the plate at the
upper boundary and zero at the lower boundary. We
call the form of the velocity variation with distance Figure 1.4 Velocity
between these two extremes, as depicted in Fig. 1.4, profile
a velocity profile. If the separation distance Y is not
too great, if the velocity U is not too high, and if
there is no net flow of fluid through the space, the
velocity profile will be linear, as in Fig. 1.4. The
behavior of the fluid is much as if it consisted of a
series of thin layers, each of which slips a little
relative to the next.
 1.11 VISCOSITY (continued)
• For a large class of fluids under the conditions of Fig. 1.4,
experiments have shown that
𝐴𝑈
𝐹∝ 𝑌
• We see from similar triangles that we can replace U/Y by
the velocity gradient du/dy. If we now introduce a
constant of proportionality µ (mu), we can express the
shearing stressτ(tau) between any two thin sheets of
fluid by
𝐹 𝑈 𝑑𝑢
τ= 𝐴 = μ 𝑌 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦 (1.8)
• We call Eq. (1.8) Newton’s equation of viscosity, since Sir
Isaac Newton (1642–1727) first suggested it. In Figure 1.4 Velocity profile
transposed form, Eq. (1.8) defines the proportionality
constant (1.9)
𝜏
𝜇 = 𝑑𝑢Τ𝑑𝑦 (1.9)
• known as the coefficient of viscosity, the absolute
viscosity, the dynamic viscosity (since it involves force),
or simply the viscosity of the fluid.
 1.11 VISCOSITY (continued)
• We noted in Sec. 1.2 that the distinction
between a solid and a fluid lies in the
manner in which each can resist
shearing stresses. We will clarify a
further distinction among various kinds
of fluids and solids by referring to Fig.
1.5.

Figure 1.5
 1.11 VISCOSITY (continued)
• The dimensions of absolute viscosity are force per unit area divided by velocity gradient.
𝑁 Τ𝑚 2 𝑁.𝑠
Dimensions of 𝜇 = = 𝑚2
𝑠 −1
• A widely used unit for viscosity in the metric system is the poise (P). The poise = 0.10
Ns/𝑚2 . The centipoise (cP) (= 0.01 P = 1 mN s/𝑚2 ) is frequently a more convenient unit. It
has a further advantage in that the viscosity of water at 20°C is 1 cP. Thus the value of the
viscosity in centipoises is an indication of the viscosity of the fluid relative to that of water
at 20°C.
• In many problems involving viscosity the absolute viscosity is divided by density. This ratio
defines the kinematic viscosity 𝝑 (nu), so called because force is not involved, the only
dimensions being length and time, as in kinematics (Sec. 1.1). Thus
𝜇
𝜗=𝜌 (1.10)
• We usually measure kinematic viscosity 𝝑 in 𝑚2 /s in the SI. Previously, in the metric system
the common units were 𝑐𝑚2 /s, also called the stoke (St), after Sir George Stokes (1819–
1903), an English physicist and pioneering investigator of viscosity. Many found the
centistoke (cSt) (0.01 St = 106 𝑚2 /s) a more convenient unit to work with.
• An important practical distinction between the two viscosities is the following. The
absolute viscosity 𝜇 of most fluids is virtually independent of pressure for the range that is
ordinarily encountered in engineering work; for extremely high pressures, the values are a
little higher than those shown in Fig. 2.3. The kinematic viscosity 𝝑 of gases, however,
varies strongly with pressure because of changes in density. Therefore, if we need to
determine the kinematic viscosity 𝝑 at a nonstandard pressure, we can look up the
(pressure-independent) value of 𝜇 and calculate 𝝑 from Eq. (1.10).
 1.12 Surface Tension
• Capillarity
Liquids have cohesion and adhesion, both of which
are forms of molecular attraction. Cohesion enables
a liquid to resist tensile stress, while adhesion
enables it to adhere to another body. At the
interface between a liquid and a gas, i.e., at the
liquid surface, and at the interface between two
immiscible (not mixable) liquids, the out-of-balance
attraction force between molecules forms an
imaginary surface film which exerts a tension force
in the surface. This liquid property is known as
surface tension. Because this tension acts in a
surface, we compare such forces by measuring the
tension force per unit length of surface. When a
second fluid is not specified at the interface, it is
understood that the liquid surface is in contact with
air. The surface tensions of various liquids cover a
wide range, and they decrease slightly with
increasing temperature. Values of the surface
tension for water between the freezing and boiling
points vary from 0.0756 to 0.0589 N/m; Table A.1 of
Appendix 3 contains more typical values. Table A.4
includes values for other liquids.
 1.12 Surface Tension (Continued)
• Capillarity is the property of
exerting forces on fluids by fine
tubes or porous media; it is due to
both cohesion and adhesion. When
the cohesion is of less effect than
the adhesion, the liquid will wet a
solid surface it touches and rise at
the point of contact; if cohesion
predominates, the liquid surface
will depress at the point of contact.
For example, capillarity makes • Figure 1.7Capillarity in clean
water rise in a glass tube, while circular glass tubes
mercury depresses below the true
level, as shown in the insert in Fig.
1.7, which is drawn to scale and
reproduced actual size. We call the
curved liquid surface that develops
in a tube a meniscus.
•
1.12 Surface Tension (Continued)
A cross section through capillary rise in a tube looks like Fig. 1.8. From free-body
considerations, equating the lifting force created by surface tension to the gravity
force,

2𝜋𝑟𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ𝛾
so
2𝜎𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
ℎ= 𝛾𝑟
(1.11)
where 𝜎 =surface tension (sigma) in units of force per unit length
𝜃 =wetting angle (theta)
𝛾= specific weight of liquid
r = radius of tube
h = capillary rise
• We can use this expression to compute the approximate capillary rise or depression in
a tube. If the tube is clean, 𝜃 = 0° for water and about 140° for mercury. Note that the
meniscus (Figs. 1.7 and 1.8) lifts a small volume of liquid, near the tube walls, in
addition to the volume 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎused in Eq. (1.11). For larger tube diameters, with smaller
capillary rise heights, this small additional volume can become a large fraction of 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ.
So Eq. (1.11) overestimates the amount of capillary rise or depression, particularly for
larger diameter tubes. The curves of Fig. 1.7 are for water or mercury in contact with
air; if mercury is in contact with water, the surface tension effect is slightly less than
when in contact with air. For tube diameters larger than in (12 mm), capillary effects Figure 1.8 Capillary Rise
are negligible.
• Surface tension effects are generally negligible in most engineering situations.
However, they can be important in problems involving capillary rise, such as in the soil
water zone; without capillarity most forms of vegetable life would perish. When we use
small tubes to measure fluid properties, such as pressures, we must take the readings
while aware of the surface tension effects; a true reading would occur if surface
tension effects were zero. These effects are also important in hydraulic model studies
when the model is small, in the breakup of liquid jets, and in the formation of drops
and bubbles. The formation of drops is extremely complex to analyze, but is, for
example, of critical concern in the design of inkjet printers, a multi-billion-dollar
business.
 1.13 Vapor Pressure of Liquids
• All liquids tend to evaporate or vaporize, which they do by
projecting molecules into the space above their surfaces. If
this is a confined space, the partial pressure exerted by the
molecules increases until the rate at which molecules reenter
the liquid is equal to the rate at which they leave. For this
equilibrium condition, we call the vapor pressure the
saturation pressure.
• Molecular activity increases with increasing temperature and
decreasing pressure, and so the saturation pressure does the
same. At any given temperature, if the pressure on the liquid
surface falls below the saturation pressure, a rapid rate of
evaporation results, known as boiling. Thus we can refer to
the saturation pressure as the boiling pressure for a given
temperature, and it is of practical importance for liquids.
• We call the rapid vaporization and recondensation of liquid
as it briefly passes through a region of low absolute pressure
cavitation. This phenomenon is often very damaging, and so
we must avoid it; we shall discuss it in more detail later on.
• Table 1.4 calls attention to the wide variation in saturation
vapor pressure of various liquids; Appendix 3, Table A.4
contains more values. The very low vapor pressure of
mercury makes it particularly suitable for use in barometers.
Values for the vapor pressure of water at different
temperatures are in Appendix 3, Table A.1.
Useful Tables

Appendix 3
 𝛾15℃ −𝛾20℃
• 𝛾17.9℃ = 𝛾15℃ − 17.9 − 15
• Assume 𝛾 at 17.9℃ = ? 20−15
9.798−9.789
• 𝛾15℃ = 9.798 𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚3 • 𝛾17.9℃ = 9.798 − 20−15 17.9 − 15
• 𝛾20℃ = 9.789 𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚3 • 𝛾17.9℃ = 9.798 − 0.005
• 𝛾17.9℃ = 9.793 𝑘𝑁Τ𝑚3
 Assignment 1
• Exercise Problems of Chapter 1 (Book 1)
1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.7, 1.12, 1.16, 1.17, 1.18, 1.20, 1.21, 1.23, 1.24, 1.25, 1.26
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