Genetics and Heredity

Asexual Reproduction
• One parent
• Offspring are identical to parent/ No genetic
variation
• Examples: Vegetative propagation, budding,
cloning, mitosis (remember ?)

• Why is this beneficial?

– Fast
– If it is not broke, don’t fix it!
 Mitosis Review
• Occurs in Somatic Cells (regular body cells)

• Cells are diploid (2 of each chromosome)

• This is asexual reproduction

• One parent produces two daughter cells

• All are identical!!!
 Sexual Reproduction
• Two parents
• Offspring are different from parents
• Genetic Variation

• Why is this beneficial?

– Produces new traits that can help offspring
survive!!
 Today’s Plan: 4/11/19
• Bellwork: Recovery Testing (30 mins)
– If you’re not recovery testing or if you finish
early, work on missing work, homework or
vocab
• Meiosis card sort (15 mins)
• Go over meiosis and karyotyping (30 mins)
• If time, start karyotyping activity
• Diploid
– A cell with two of each chromosome (2n)
• Haploid
– A cell with one of each chromosome. (n)
• Meiosis
– Process that reduces the number of chromosomes to
half the number in the original cell. (turns diploid
cells into haploid cells)
– Produces haploid cells called gametes.

– Occurs in sex cells (gametes)

– Cells are haploid (chromosome # is cut in half)
– Sexual reproduction
– Produces 4 cells that are different
Mitosis Meiosis
 The Law of Independent Assortment states that the
chromosomes in a cell will separate (sort) themselves differently
each time egg and sperm are formed.

This means no siblings are alike unless they are identical twins!!
• Forming Gametes
– After meiosis in males four haploid cells are formed
=spermatogenesis.
– In females one haploid egg is formed=oogenesis.
AND three polar bodies.
• In humans the sperm should have 23
chromosomes and the egg should have 23
chromosomes.
• When they meet the individual (baby) has 46
chromosomes in 23 pairs.
• You can see these in a karyotype (picture of a
person’s chromosomes).
 Chromosomes and Karyotypes
• Humans have 46 chromosomes in every
cell of their body. Those 46 chromosomes
are actually 23 pairs of chromosomes.

• 23 come from Mom’s egg

• 23 come from Dad’s sperm
• Remember meiosis???
 Karyotypes
• Karyotypes are pictures of a person’s chromosomes.
You can see all 46 chromosomes.
• Normal human karyotypes have 46 chromosomes or
23 pairs.

• 22 pairs are autosomal chromosomes

1 pair are the sex chromosomes
– Females XX
– Males XY
Q: How do humans get these chromosomes??
A: Meiosis
 Chromosome Abnormality -
Nondysjuctions
• Change in a persons chromosomes.
• Chromosomes can be broken, deleted or
added.
– Remember: There is a lot of DNA in one
chromosome. Chromosome mutations can affect
MANY genes.

• Cause of nondysjunction: chromosomes do

not separate correctly during meiosis.
 Examples of Chromosomal Abnormalities
• Downs Syndrome
– Caused by: Nondysjunction/Trisomy
– Characteristics: Facial differences, heart defects, mental
delays
– Trisomy 21
• Turner’s Syndrome
– Caused by: Nondysjunction/Monosomy
– Monosomy of the sex chromosomes
– X ___
• Klinefelter’s Syndrome
– Caused by: Nondysjunction/Trisomy
– Trisomy of the sex chromosomes
– XXY
 Detecting Chromosomal Mutations
• Pre-natal
– Amniocentesis: remove a sample of the amniotic
fluid surrounding the fetus.
– Chorionic Villi Sampling: Sample tissue near the
placenta.
• These can be used to create a karyotype.
 Genotype/Phenotype Givens
• In Pea Plants:
– Tall (T) is dominant to Short (t)
– Inflated (I) pods are dominant to wrinkled (i)
pods
– Axial (A) flowers are dominant to terminal (a)
flowers
• In Rabbits:
– Straight Ears (E) are dominant to floppy ears €
– Black fur (B) is dominant to white fur (b)
 Gregor Mendel
• Research on heredity-passing of
characteristics from parents to offspring.
• Studied science and statistics.
• Based most of his studies on peas plants.
• Observed characteristics of pea plants:
– Plant height: long or short
– Pod color: green or yellow
– Seed structure: smooth or wrinkled
– Seed color: yellow or green
– Flower color: purple or white
 What did Mendel observe?
• When he planted seeds from purple
flowering plants some offspring had purple
flowering plants and others had white
flowering plants.
• When he planted smooth seeds he had
plants that produced smooth seeds and some
plants that produced wrinkled seeds.
• Mendel discovered there were 2 forms of each trait/gene.
Each form of a trait or gene is called an allele. Each parent
gives one allele for each trait. So individuals have two
copies.
• Mendel began to realize that one allele could “cover up” the
other allele.
• Dominant and recessive alleles.
One allele is dominant and is always expressed
One allele is recessive and is “covered up” by the other
• How/When do we get these traits?
– Law of segregation: a pair of factors is separated during gamete
formation.
– This means: Alleles for each gene separate to different gametes
during meiosis.
• The traits you express are your phenotype.
• Alleles show your genotype. The actual genetic make-up.
(letters)
Relationship between genes and alleles
• A gene is the DNA that codes for a characteristic. The
alleles are the versions of that trait.
Ex. Plant Height (trait/gene)
T=Tall, t=short (alleles)

Flower Color (trait/gene)

P=purple, p=white (alleles)

• Always use ONE letter to represent a gene. Use capital

letters for dominant, lower case letters for recessive.
• Homozygous (“homo” means same)- genotype where the
organism has two of the same alleles for a trait.
– Pure-breeding or True-breeding
– TT or tt
• Heterozygous (“hetero” means different)-genotype
where the organism has two different alleles for a trait.
– Hybrid or Carrier
– Tt
• When alleles are combined they may or may not be
expressed (shown)
• Dominant traits are always expressed.
• Recessive traits are sometimes expressed. Only when
the organism has two recessive alleles. Homozygous
recessive.
• Cross-offspring from two parents
– Monohybrid looks at one trait
• P generations-parents
• F1 generation-first offspring from parents
• F2 generation-offspring from F1
• Selfed/Self-fertilization-cross with one just like
itself
• Test Cross-figure out an unknown genotype
 Steps to work a Punnett Square
1. Read problem.
2. Create a key.
3. Write any known genotypes. (directly or
determined from problem)
4. Solve square.
5. Re-read the question to make sure you are
recording the answer correctly.
• Rabbits
– B: Big Feet, b: small feet
– F: Floppy ears, f: straight ears
– B: Black rabbits (dominant), b: Brown rabbits

• Show the F1 generation of a monohybrid cross

between a rabbit that is homozygous for floppy ears
and a heterozygous rabbit. What are the chances
their offspring will be heterozygous for floppy ears?
• A male and female rabbit that are both heterozygous
for feet size reproduce. What is the chance their
offspring will have small feet? Write the genotypic
ratio of the F1.
• Corn plants have a gene for curled leaves that is
dominant to straight leaves. If a corn plant that is
homozygous curly leaves is crossed with a
homozygous recessive plant what is the genotype
of the F1?
• Show the Punnett square if one of the F1
generation offspring were selfed. What is the
phenotypic ratio of the F2?
• PKU is a recessive disorder. A healthy
woman is a carrier for the disease
PKU. Her husband is healthy. What
are the chances they will have a child
with PKU?
 Special Inheritance

• Polygenic Traits
– Characteristics controlled by two or more genes.
– Genotype: TtGGEe
– Phenotype: More dominant alleles = the more extreme
of a trait.
– Ex. Eye color is determined by the combination of
approximately 3 genes.
– Other examples?
– Baby Lab?
 Special Inheritance: Types of Dominance
• The type of dominance we have been studying is complete
dominance.
– Two phenotypes are possible.
– Baby Lab Trait?
• Incomplete dominance: When the F1 generation could have a
phenotype completely different from the parents.
– Three phenotypes are available for each trait. The third
phenotype is a mix of the other two.
– Example
– Baby Lab Trait?
• Codominance: When the F1 generation could have a phenotype
completely different from the parents.
– Three phenotypes are available for each trait. The third phenotype
shows both of the other two.
– Example
– Baby Lab Trait?
• Polyallele Traits (Multiple Allele)
– Several possible alleles for one trait.
– Results in 4-5 phenotypes
– Ex. Blood Types (polyallele and codominance)
– Blood Type Chart and practice in your notes.
Phenotype Genotype Donate To Recieve From
(Blood Type)
 Blood Type
A woman with type A blood has a child with a
man who has type O blood. Their first child
has type O blood. Determine the genotypes of
the parents and show the cross. What is the
probability that they will have another child
with type O blood? What other blood types
are possible for their offspring?
 Blood Typing
• A woman with type A blood has a child with
type AB blood. She is trying to determine
who is the father of her child. Father #1 has
type B blood and Father #2 has type O blood.
Which man is the father of her child? Show
the Punnett square to support your answer.

• #5 and #6 on your homework

 Sex-linked Traits
• Remember Karyotypes???
• How many chromosomes in a karyotype are
autosomes?
• How many chromosomes in a karyotype are sex
chromosomes? Do men and women have the
same sex chromosomes? Explain.
• Sex Linkage (these are complete dominance)
– X-linked: genes located on the X chromosome
– Y-linked: genes located on the Y chromosome
– The presence of a gene on a sex chromosome is called a
sex-linked trait
• Ex. Eye color is an X-linked trait in fruit flies. Red
is the dominant allele for this trait. Therefore white
eyed females will only produce white eyed male
offspring.
• Hemophilia is an X-linked recessive trait. Show the
punnet square between a normal male and a female
who carries the trait for hemophilia. What are the
chances they will have a child with hemophilia?
 Genetics and the
Environment/ Explore D
If traits depend on DNA, why are the same
genotypes expressed differently in different
environments?

Brainstorm environmental factors that could

affect organisms.
 Figure 14.14

Hydrangeas have DNA that codes for their color.

However it is expressed differently in acid soil and basic
soil. This tells us the environment AND genetics play a
role in determining characteristics of organisms.
What environmental
factor affects the
phenotype of the
flowers?
 Genetics and the
Environment/ U6HW4
If traits depend on DNA, why are the same
genotypes expressed differently in different
environments?

Brainstorm environmental factors that could

affect organisms.
 Figure 14.14

Hydrangeas have DNA that codes for their color.

However it is expressed differently in acid soil and basic
soil. This tells us the environment AND genetics play a
role in determining characteristics of organisms.
What environmental
factor affects the
phenotype of the
flowers?