“Disappointment is

when a beautiful
hypothesis is
destroyed by an
ugly fact”
Newton

1
 Components of Science Fondation of Science

Science: Concepts Classification

1. Natural Science Evidence Comparation
2. Social science Logic Causality
3. Formal science Hypotheses • Reversible-irreversible
Theories • Deterministic-
Probabilistic
Induction • Coextensive-sequential
Deduction • Sufficient-contingent

Validity • Necessary-substitutable

Reliability
 Science
According to the National Academy of Sciences, Science is the use of
evidence to construct testable explanations and predictions of
natural phenomena, as well as the knowledge generated through
this process.

Phenomena are the events that are observed to happen.

Evidence are observable facts and measurements of the natural

world that can be used to evaluate hypotheses, theories, and other
scientific explanations.
Scientific Thinking
• It is common to think about in terms of questions, observations, data,
hypotheses, testing, and theories. These are formal parts of the
scientific method.

• Most important parts of scientific thinking:

• using empirical evidence
• practicing logical reasoning
• possessing a skeptical attitude
 KNOWLEDGE

FACTS & THEORIES MODELS & PARADIGMS

MEASUREMENT SCIENCE CREATIVITY

(SCIENTIA)

REPRODUCIBILITY
SYMBOLS & REALITY

AMBIGUITY
Overview
• CHARACTERISTICS of SCIENCE
• CONNECTIONS to PEIRCE
• ROLE of MEASUREMENT and
IMAGINATION
• PROCESS of SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
• DISCOVERY in SCIENCE
• LIMITATIONS of SCIENCE
Characteristics of Science
• PERMITS US to “FIX” RELIABLE BELIEFS -
PEIRCE

• USES DOUBT as a TOOL to ESTABLISH BELIEFS

• DERIVES from HUMANS’ “RAGE TO KNOW”

• TRANSCULTURAL and therefore UNIVERSAL / SOCIAL

• SELF-CORRECTIVE: SCIENCE is CUMULATIVE,

but OPEN-ENDED, GROWING and CHANGING.

• SEEKS to UNDERSTAND, PREDICT and CONTROL

NATURE (i. e., Environment and Ourselves)

• FORMS the BASIS for MODERN CULTURE; SERVES

 PEIRCE - “Fixing” Beliefs

HUMAN DILEMMA: DOUBT & BELIEF

WHY ARE BELIEFS SO IMPORTANT TO

PEIRCE ?

IDENTIFIES METHODS WE USE FOR

“FIXING” BELIEFS
 Peirce : “Fixing” Reliable Beliefs
The Answer is the Process; the Process is
the Answer
384: “To satisfy our doubts therefore, it is necessary that a
method should be found by which our beliefs be
determined by some external permanency - by
something upon which our thinking has no effect…such is
the method of science…yet the method must be such
that the ultimate conclusion of every man shall be the
same.” (p. 14)
PEIRCE'S JUSTIFICATION
"No doubts of the method, therefore necessarily arise
from its practice…experience of the method has not
led us to doubt it. But on the contrary, scientific
investigation has had the most wonderful triumphs in
the way of settling opinions.” (p. 15)
Measurement & Imagination

Perception is Illusionary

Measurement Clarifies Perception

Reproducibility Verifies Measurement and

Establishes Reliability (Criterion for Truth)
 What is research?
• research. the systematic investigation into and study of materials,
sources, etc, in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.
An endeavour to discover new or collate old facts etc by the
scientific study of a subject or by Synonyms:
a course of critical investigation.
investigation, experimentation,
testing, analysis, fact-
[Oxford Concise Dictionary] finding, fieldwork, examination
, scrutiny More
Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed phenomenon.
Research involves inductive and deductive methods (Babbie, 1998).

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What is Research
1. Systematic – research process
2. Logical – induction/deduction
3. Empirical – evidence based
4. Reductive – generalisation
5. Replicable – methodology.
Basic elements of research
Purposes of Research
• Exploratory
• gaining some familiarity with a topic, discovering some of its main
dimensions, and possibly planning more structured research

• Descriptive
• Political poll predicting who will win an election
• Anthropologist’s ethnographic account of a preliterate tribe
• Census Bureau’s report on number of Americans

• Explanatory
• Take it one step further
•Evaluation
• Evaluate specific outcomes and provide explanations for why and how
a particular result occurred
Type of research
Many kinds of research
LOGICAL (mathematics, philosophy)

EVALUATION (judging, appraising)

INVESTIGATIVE (law, government hearings, journalism)

DEMOGRAPHIC (economics, census, polling)

MODUS OPERANDI (forensics, medical diagnosis)

EMPIRICAL/SCIENTIFIC (social science, education, physical science)

 Mixed
Methods

Quantitative Qualitative

Empirical
Research

Post-positivism Constructionism
 Quasi-
Experimental
experimental

Correlational

Single
Quantitative
subject

Descriptive

Meta-
analysis
 Phenomenological

Interpretive
Understanding a Ethnographic
situation from the
participant perspective

Grounded Theory
Qualitative

Action Research
Critical
Understanding and
critiquing power within
society
Dialectics
 QUAL-quant

Mixed
QUANT-qual
Methods

QUAL-QUANT
 Time order decision
Concurrent Sequential

QUAL + QUAN QUAL QUAN

QUAN QUAL

QUAL + quan QUAL quan

Qual QUAN

QUAN + qual QUAN qual

Quan QUAL
 Mixed
Methods

Quantitative Qualitative

VALIDITY
• Replicability
• Reliability
• Probabilistic
• Method & instruments
• Credibility
• Verisimilitude
• Confirmability
• Researcher
 Mixed
Methods

Quantitative Qualitative

GENERALIZABILITY
Nomothetic statements Idiographic statements
Similarity Similarity & difference
Sample to population Thick description
Justifiability through standard Researcher as instrument
techniques Readers judge the
Researcher makes explicit claim transferability
about generalizability
Differences between quantitative and qualitative purpose statements
and research questions
Quantitative - more Qualitative - more
closed open-ended
1. Probable cause/Effect (“Why did it 1. Descriptive (“What happened?”)
happen?”)
2. Use of theories (Why did it happen 2. Interpretive (“What was the
in view of an explanation or meaning to people of what
theory?” happened?”)
3. Assessing differences and 3. Process-oriented (“What happened
magnitude over time?”)
“How much happened?”
“How many times did it happen?
What were the differences among
groups in what happened?

l 25
How researchers explain or predict variables versus exploring or
understanding a Central Phenomenon

Quantitative Qualitative
Explaining or Predicting Understanding or exploring a
Variables Central Phenomenon
X Y

The independent variable (X) Y

influences a dependent
variable (Y)
In-depth understanding of Y;
external forces shape and are
shaped by Y

l 26
Qualitative Research Considerations
• More open-ended
• The direction of the study is focused on how to best learn from the
participants
• The focus of the research is around a Central Phenomenon which is
an issue or a process the researcher would like to study.
• Qualitative research is built on an emerging design

l 27
Research ‘Musts’

• Problem must be clearly recognized

• Determine information already available and what

further information is required, as well as the best
approach for obtaining it

• Obtain and assess information objectively to help

inform the decision
‘Six’ Phases of Research
1. Problem definition

2. Literature review

3. Selection of research design, subjects, and data collection techniques

4. Data gathering

5. Data processing and analysis

6. Implications, Conclusions, and Recommendations

 Scientific Method

How is Science different from other fields of study?

Science uses the scientific inquiry, or the

scientific method
Deductive Reasoning- general to specific
reasoning from general theories to
account for specific experimental results
(theory-data collection-analysis)
Inductive Reasoning- specific to general
reasoning from specific observations
and experiments to more general
theories
(data collection-analysis-theory)
 Scientific Method

How is Science different from other fields of study?

Science uses scientific inquiry, or the

scientific method
Deductive Reasoning- general to specific
reasoning from general theories to
account for specific experimental results
(theory-data collection-analysis)
Inductive Reasoning- specific to general
reasoning from specific observations
and experiments to more general
theories
(data collection-analysis-theory)
 Scientific Method
Observations
Question
Formulate Hypothesis

Conduct Experiment to test Hypothesis

Analyze Results

Conclusions

Publish
Observation:

The car won’t start when I turn the ignition.

Question:

Hypothesis:

Test hypothesis:

Analyze Results:

Draw Conclusion:

New hypothesis:
 Scientific Method

• Observations
• Suggest questions to investigate
• Question
• Why does something happen
Research the question
• Hypothesis
• A testable explanation for an observation
Scientific Method
• Conduct Experiment
– Process of testing a hypothesis or prediction by
gathering data under controlled conditions
– Control vs Experimental Group
Control group: a group that has not been exposed
to some factor (variable). It is used to compare the
experimental group.
Experimental group: a group that has been
exposed to the factor (variable)

Independent variable (IV): the variable you

manipulate that you believe will affect the DV
Dependent variable (DV): the outcome variable,
i.e., variable you measure
 Scientific Method

• Collect, organize, analyze data

– Determine whether data is reliable
– Determine whether data supports or does
not support the hypothesis or prediction
– May use statistics
• Compare data from other studies
• Determine relationships
• Determine experimental error
 Scientific Method

• Drawing Conclusions
– To understand something not previously
understood
– To produce a model
• Construct a representation of an object, a
system, or a process to help show relationships
given the data
• A model is an explanation supported by data
• Use the model to generate new hypotheses or
predictions
Evidence
• Definition: empirically observed experiences, i.e. from
the five senses
• Words that signal the use of evidence:
Data
Observations
Empirical
Empiricism
• Kinds of evidence
Quantitative vs. Qualitative
Etic vs Emic
Logic
Definition: the study of necessary connection
or outcome.

Science must avoid logical mistakes that make

incorrect connections and result in faulty
information outcomes.
Theory
A set of related hypotheses that act together to
provide a better explanation than any single
hypothesis.
Theories are only scientific if the hypotheses that make them up can
be empirically tested.
A set of assumptions, propositions, or accepted facts that attempts to
provide a plausible or rational explanation of cause-and-effect (causal)
relationships among a group of observed phenomenon.

NEVER USE THE WORDS PROVE AND

THEORY IN THE SAME SENTENCE!
Induction
The generation of hypotheses and/or theories from
empirical evidence.
The process of inferring a general law or principle from
observation of particular instances
Induction takes specific data and makes generalizations from them.

These generalizations take the form of hypotheses and theories.

Deduction
Definition: the testing of hypotheses and/or theories
with empirical evidence.

Deduction takes generalizations and collects evidence to see if they

are supported under a variety of circumstances.
Validity
Definition: You actually measure what you say you
are measuring.

One would not measure self esteem by collecting data

on shoe size. Shoe size is an invalid measure of self
esteem. There are a number of self esteem
measurement instruments developed to measure the
specific aspects of self esteem as the scientific
community defines the concept. These instruments
have been tested and accepted as valid instruments.
Reliability
Definition: The results of a research project have been repeated and
the same findings result each time.

The knowledge that boys are, on average, more active and aggressive
as children than girls is a reliable finding because dozens of studies
have independently come to that same conclusion.
Classical scientific method
• Observation of some phenomenon
• Maybe systematic, occasional or accidental
• Some idea of an explanation (hypothesis)
• Induction, conjecture, intuition, guesswork
• Usually informed by related work
• Testing of the hypothesis
• Test and revision cycle

45
Model of Research
1. Concept and statement
2. Physical VS social science
3. Quantitative and qualitative (paradigm)
4. Scientific method
 Scientific Method of Research
Four Steps:
1. 2.
Observation Hypothesis

False
True
4.
3. Testing
Predictions

• If the experiments prove the hypothesis to be true, it becomes a theory or law of nature. If the experiments prove the hypothesis
to be false, the hypothesis must be rejected or modified. The scientific method used properly should give us predictive power (to
understand phenomena which have not been tested).

Further reading found at http://teacher.nsrl.rochester.edu/phy_labs/AppendixE/AppendixE.html

Quantitative Research
• Focuses on variables that can be measured or labeled
with numbers
• Studies many cases or participants.
• Produces nomothetic (generalizations) results.
• Attempts to stay independent of the context and
setting.
• Detaches the researcher from the study.
• Analyzes numeric results using descriptive, and
inferential statistics.
• Usually collects data through surveys, experiments,
content analyses or structured interviews.
Qualitative Data
Definition: data collected in the form of
descriptions.

Qualitative data is summarized in written descriptions

of the contents of interviews, content analyses,
observations or participant observation. The results are
presented in essay format sometimes including quoted
examples.

The collection of qualitative data lends itself to

certain kinds of research designs.
Qualitative Research
• Focuses on interactive processes, events, ideas and
emotions.
• It involves the researcher intimately in the study being
conducted.
• Is used to produce case studies of societies, groups or
individuals.
• Provides the only way to collect truly emic data.
• Produces idiographic (descriptions of individual
things or people) results.
• Usually collects evidence through unstructured
interviewing, observation or participant observation
or content analysis.
Steps in the Scientific Research Process

• Selecting a topic or population to study

• Reviewing the literature
• Focusing the question
• Matching topic to population
• Designing the study
• Collecting evidence/data
• Analyzing findings
• Interpreting findings
• Informing others of your findings
• To develop knowledge for professions.
• To develop effective policies.
• To solve practical problems.
• To make informed decisions.
• To increase the knowledge base of larger society.

Huge amounts of daily life and experience in our

society are based on what we have learned using the
logic and evidence involved in scientific research.
Ethics
Research ethics concerns the responsibility of researchers to be honest
and respectful to all individuals who are affected by their research
studies or their reports of the studies’ results.
Ethical Responsibility of Researchers
6 key principles
 Research should be designed, reviewed and undertaken to ensure
integrity and quality;

 Informed consent of both research staff and subjects;

 Confidentially of information and anonymity of respondents must

be respected;

 Participation must be voluntary and free from coercion;

 Harm avoidance;

 Independence of research - any conflicts of interest or partiality

must be explicit.
Implementation
 Responsibility for conduct of research rests with the
principal investigator (PI);

 Responsibility for gaining appropriate ethical review &

monitoring lies with the institution employing the PI
and researchers;

 Research involving primary data collection or use of

organs/tissues etc. will ALWAYS raises some ethical
issues;

 Use of secondary datasets is often uncontroversial BUT

we cannot automatically assume so (e.g. novel use of
existing databases or data linkage)
Ethics in Practice
 Proposals need to demonstrate what ethical approval is
required & how this will be achieved - in signing off a
proposal an institution is indicating it concurs with this;
 All legal requirements must be met, e.g. data protection,
health and safety, privacy laws, IPR etc. Data cannot be
stored or transferred to a country outside the EU unless
to country has equivalent levels of protection for
personal data or UNLESS data stripping has occurred.
 Researcher needs to be alert to unanticipated ethical
issues that arise in course of carrying out research;
Research is …….
• Knowledge acquisition gained
• through reasoning
• through intuition
• but most importantly through the use of appropriate
methods

The Scientific Method

Polgar, Thomas 58
 Basic Elements of the Scientific Method

• Empiricism: the notion that enquiry is conducted

through observation and knowledge verified through
evidence
• Determinism: the notion that events occur according
to regular laws and causes. The goal of research is to
discover these
• Scepticism: the notion that any proposition is open to
analysis and critique

Polgar, Thomas 59
Scientific Method
1. Choose a question to investigate
2. Identify a hypothesis related to the question
3. Make testable predictions in the hypothesis
4. Design an experiment to answer hypothesis
question
5. Collect data in experiment
6. Determine results and assess their validity
7. Determine if results support or refute your
hypothesis

60
The Scientific Method
1. Suspicion that a factor (exposure) may
influence occurrence of disease or a noted
health outcome

- Observations in clinical practice

- Examination of disease/outcome patterns
- Do subpopulations have higher or lower rates?
- Are disease rates increased in the presence of certain factors?
- Observations in laboratory research
- Theoretical speculation

61
 The Scientific Method
2. Identify variables you are interested in:
• Exposure - (risk factor, protective factor,
predictor variable, treatment)
• Outcome - (disease, event)

3. Formulate a specific hypothesis

- Frame a hypothesis which seeks to
answer a specific question about the
relationship between an exposure and an
outcome
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Research problem
Now you want to formulate a research
problem (define areas, topics,
problems/issues

How to start?????
Before formulating problems
• How much do you know about the areas/topics?

Not much ----- Review literature to learn more

Good ------ Can you describe the issues/problems

discussed to date
Where do research topics come from?
• Experiences of practical problems in the field,
• Learn from those experiencing the issues in the field,
• Literature in your specific field,
• Request for proposals
• Think up the research topics of their own

Q: How about yours?

a research problem
Steps in the formulation of a research problem
1. Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.
2. Dissect the broad area into subareas.
3. Select what is of most interest to you.
4. Raise research questions.
5. Formulate objectives
6. Assess your objectives
7. Double-check
Considerations in selecting a research problem
• interest,
• magnitude,
• measurement of concepts,
• level of expertise,
• relevance,
• availability of data,
• ethical issues.
Basic Question in Research
Are exposure and disease/outcome linked?

Is there an association between them?

Exposure Disease / Health

Outcome
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Next Step: Design Study

• Study Designs …(not exhaustive)

• Case series
• Cross-sectional
• Case-control
• Cohort
• Randomized controlled clinical trial

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Association

• From the results of your study, does a statistical

relationship exist between two or more events,
characteristics, or other variables

• Is there a statistical relationship, or association,

between exposure and disease/outcome?

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 Statistical Association

The degree to which the rate of disease

or outcome in persons with a specific
exposure is either higher or lower than the
rate of disease or outcome among those
without that exposure.

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Descriptive studies
Three essential characteristics that
we look to measure in descriptive
studies are...
•Person
•Place
•Time
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 Person
Since disease not does occur at random:

What kinds of people tend to develop a

particular disease, and who tends to
be spared? What’s unusual about
those people?

73
Person Factors

• Age, gender, race, ethnicity

• Genetic predisposition
• Concurrent disease
• Diet, exercise, smoking
• Risk taking behavior
• SES, education, occupation

74
Place Factors
• Geographic place
• residence
• occupation
• climate
• geology
• population density
• economic development
• nutritional practices
• medical practices

75
Time Factors

• Calendar Time / Time of Day

• Time since an event
• Date of onset
• Age (time since birth in the young)
• Seasonality
• Temporal trends

76
Resources:

• Thomas Songer, PhD

• Kimberly Porter Martin, Ph.D.