CHAPTER 5

THE MOLECULES
OF LIFE
ORGANIC MOLECULES
 FOUR MAIN CATEGORIES:
carbohydrates: fuel & building material

lipids: fats & oils

proteins: perform most cell functions

nucleic acids: information storage

CONCEPT 5.1
CARBON IS THE
MAIN INGREDIENT
OF ORGANIC
MOLECULES
ORGANIC vs. INORGANIC
 Carbon based molecules are called
organic molecules.

 Non-carbon based molecules—

water, oxygen, and ammonia are
inorganic molecules.
Atomic Structure of Carbon
 Carbon atoms can
form four bonds
 Connecting point
for other atoms in
four directions
 Can produce
endless variety of
carbon skeletons
that can bond with
carbon or with
other elements
HYDROCARBONS
 Organic molecules composed only of
carbon and hydrogen

 Many are important fuels

 Methane found in natural gas is used

to heat homes.
CARBON BACKBONES
 Types of carbon backbones:
- straight chain

- branched chain

- can form double bonds

- can form ring structures
CARBON SKELETONS
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
 Group of atoms within molecules—
determine properties of organic molecules
 React in predictable ways with other
molecules
 Hydrophilic molecules: molecules that are
attracted water
 Hydrophobic molecules: molecules that do
not mix with water
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
 4 most common functional groups:
1) hydroxyl group: (OH)
2) carbonyl group: (C=O)
3) carboxyl group: (O=C-OH)
4) amino group: (H-N-H)
MONOMERS & POLYMERS
 Most biological molecules are large
and are made up of smaller subunits

 Monomer: molecular subunit that is

building block of a larger molecule

 Polymer: long chain of monomers

 DEHYDRATION REACTION
 Also called condensation reaction
 Links monomers together forming
polymers or making polymer chains
longer
 Water molecule is removed in forming a
polymer or making it longer
 Same type of reaction occurs regardless
of type of monomers being linked or type
of polymer produced
DEHYDRATION REACTION
 HYDROLYSIS REACTION
 Chemical reaction where polymers are
broken down to their monomers
 Large polymers must be broken down to
make monomers available to cells
 Hydrolysis breaks the chemical bonds in
polymers by adding water molecules 
reverse of dehydration/condensation
HYDROLYSIS REACTION
DEHYDRATION & HYDROLYSIS
 Dehydration

Hydrolysis
Short polymer Monomer Longer polymer
DEHYDRATION vs. HYDROLYSIS
 Summary:

 Dehydration: water is removed to

build a polymer

 Hydrolysis: Water is added to break

down a polymer
 CONCEPT 5.2
CARBOHYDRATES
PROVIDE FUEL
AND BUILDING
MATERIAL
 CARBOHYDRATES ARE MADE
UP OF SUGAR MOLECULES
 Sugars contain carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen in the following ratio:
1 carbon : 2 hydrogen : 1 oxygen
 Molecular formula of any
carbohydrate is a multiple of the
basic formula CH2O
 HOW CELLS USE SUGARS
 Main fuel supply for cellular work
 Other uses:
- Provide raw material to make other
organic molecules such as fats
- Used to make energy stockpiles
- Serve as building materials
 MONOSACCHARIDES
 Sugars that contain just one
sugar unit or monomer

 Examples:
- glucose
- fructose
- galactose
 DISACCHARIDES
 “double sugars”
 Produced in dehydration reactions from
two monosaccharides

 Most common disaccharide is sucrose –

table sugar—formed by linking glucose
and fructose molecules
 POLYSACCHARIDES
 3 common types  all glucose polymers:

 Starch: found in plant cells—glucose storage

molecule

 Glycogen: found in animal cells—glucose

storage—abundant in muscle and liver cells

 Cellulose: used by plant cells for building

material—makes up cell walls—not digestible by
humans  forms “bulk” in our diet
POLYSACCHARIDES
 CONCEPT 5.3
LIPIDS INCLUDE
FATS AND
STEROIDS
 LIPIDS
 Commonly known as fats and oils

 Are hydrophobic  do not mix with water

 Simplest fats are triglycerides

 Chain of 3 fatty acids (hydrocarbon

molecules) bonded to a glycerol molecule
TRIGLYCERIDE: SIMPLE LIPID
FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
 Act as a boundary—they are a major
component of cell membranes

 Circulate in the body acting as chemical

signals to cells—some are hormones

 Used to store energy in the body

 Act to cushion and insulate the body

SATURATED FATS
 All the carbon atoms in fatty acid
chains contain only single bonds
 Include animal fats such as butter

 Solids at room temperature

UNSATURATED FATS
 Have at least one double bond
between the carbon atoms in one of
the fatty acid chains

 Found in fruits, vegetables, fish,

corn oil, olive oil, and other
vegetable oils

 Liquids at room temperature

SATURATED vs. UNSATURATED
 STEROIDS
 Carbon skeleton forms four fused rings
 Classified as lipids  are hydrophobic

 Some act as chemical signals or hormones

 estrogen and testosterone
 Some form structural components of cells
 cholesterol
EXAMPLES OF STEROIDS
 CHOLESTEROL
 Essential molecule found in all cell
membranes
 Serves as base molecule from which
other steroids are produced
 Has bad reputation  cholesterol
containing substances in blood are linked
to cardiovascular disease
CONCEPT 5.4
PROTEINS
PERFORM MOST
FUNCTIONS IN
CELLS
 FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS
 Form structures—hair, fur, muscles
 Provide long-term nutrient storage
 Circulate and defend the body against
microorganisms (antibodies)
 Act as chemical signals—hormones
 Help control chemical reactions in cells--
enzymes
 PROTEIN STRUCTURE
 Polymers formed from monomers called
amino acids
 Amino acids bond together to form chains
called a polypeptides
 Sequence of amino acids makes each
polypeptide unique
 Each protein is composed of one or more
polypeptides
AMINO ACID STRUCTURE

Figure 5-12: All amino acids consist of a central carbon bonded to an

amino group, a carboxyl group, and a hydrogen atom. The fourth
bond is with a unique side group – called the “R” group. Differences
in side groups convey different properties to each amino acid.
 PROTEIN SHAPE
 Functional proteins consist of precisely
twisted, coiled, and shaped polypeptides
 Proteins cannot function correctly if
shape is altered
 Sequence and types of amino acids in the
polypeptides affect protein shape
 Surrounding environment—usually
aqueous—plays a role in protein shape
DENATURATION
 Denaturation: loss of normal protein
shape

 Changes in temperature, pH, or

other environmental conditions may
cause proteins to become denatured

 If the protein shape is changed,

protein cannot function normally
 CONCEPT 5.5
ENZYMES ARE
PROTEINS THAT
SPEED UP SPECIFIC
REACTIONS IN CELLS
 ACTIVATION ENERGY
 Activation energy: minimum energy
required to start chemical reaction
 Chemical bonds in reactants must be
weakened to start most reactions
 Catalysts: compounds that speed up
chemical reactions
 Enzymes: proteins that act as catalysts for
chemical reactions in organisms
 ENZYMES
 Provide a way for reactions to occur
at cell’s normal temperature
 Enzymes lower energy requirement
for a chemical reactions in cells so
they can occur at normal cell
temperatures
 Each enzyme catalyzes a specific
kind of chemical reaction
HOW ENZYMES WORK
 Substrate: specific reactant acted on by
an enzyme
 Active site: specific region of the
enzyme that the substrate fits into

 Substrate binds to enzyme’s active site

where the substrate undergoes a
change
HOW ENZYMES WORK
 Shape of an enzyme fits the shape of only
specific reactant molecules
 As substrate enters, active site of enzyme
changes slightly to form snug attachment
 Attachment weakens chemical bonds in
substrate lowering activation energy
required for reaction to proceed
ACTIVE SITE MODEL
HOW ENZYMES WORK
 Once products of chemical reaction are
released, enzyme’s active site is ready to
accept another reactant molecule

 Recycling is a key characteristic of

enzymes—they are not “used up” catalyzing a
single reaction
HOW ENZYMES WORK
THE END