Wastewater Treatment Processes

In general, these processes are divided into three stages: preliminary (physical), primary
(physical) treatment and secondary (biological) treatment. Minimally, wastewater should
receive primary (physical removal/settling) and secondary (biological) treatment, which
can be followed by disinfection before discharge. More advanced processes (advanced or
tertiary treatment) may be required for special wastes. When the effluent from secondary
treatment is unacceptable, a third level of treatment, tertiary treatment, can be employed.
 Preliminary Treatment
Purpose - protect the operation of the wastewater treatment plant

Flow Measuring

All treatment plants are required to monitor influent

wastewater flow. Flow measurement in pipes can be
done by venturimeters whereas in open channels
Parshall flume is used to measure the flowrate. In
case of Preliminary treatment generally Parshall
flume is used as it is have the advantages of low
head loss and smooth hydraulic flow to prevent
deposition of solids.
Screening
Screens remove large solids such as rags, sticks, plastics and similar materials from the
wastewater.
Figure 1 shows a bar rack and a traveling screen. Bar racks (also called bar screens) are
composed of larger bars spaced at 25 to 80 mm apart. The arrangement shown in the figure is
normally used for shoreline intakes of water by a treatment plant. The rack is used to exclude
large objects; the traveling screen following it is used to remove smaller objects such as leaves,
twigs, small fish, and other materials that pass through the rack. The arrangement then protects
the pumping station that lifts this water to the treatment plant.

Figure 1
Figure 2 shows a bar screen installed in a detritus tank. Detritus tanks are used to remove grits
and organic materials in the treatment of raw sewage. Bar screens are either hand cleaned or
mechanically cleaned. Table 1 shows some design parameters and criteria for mechanically and
hand-cleaned screens.

Table 1

Figure 2
Applying the Bernoulli equation, reproduced below, between points 1 and 2.

Where P, V, and h are the pressure, velocity, and elevation head at indicated points; g is the
acceleration due to gravity. V1 is called the approach velocity; the channel in which this
velocity is occurring is called the approach channel. To avoid sedimentation in the approach
channel, the velocity of flow at this point should be maintained at the self-cleansing velocity.
Self-cleansing velocities are in the neighborhood of 0.76 m/s.
Considering point 1 and 2 at atmospheric pressure
 Recognizing that the Bernoulli equation was the one applied, a coefficient of discharge must
now be prefixed into above Equation. Calling this coefficient Cd,

Solving for the head loss across the screen Δh,

In the absence of experimentally determined data, a value of 0.84 may be assumed for Cd. As
the screen is clogging, the value of A2 will progressively decrease. As gleaned from the
equation, the head loss Δh will theoretically rise to infinity. At this point, the screen is, of
course, no longer functioning.
Figure 3 shows a microstrainer. As shown, this type of microstrainer consists of a straining
material made of a very fine fabric or screen wound around a drum. The drum is about 75%
submerged as it is rotated; speeds of rotation are normally about from 5 to 45 rpm. The influent
is introduced from the underside of the wound fabric and exits into the outside. The materials
thus strained is retained in the interior of the drum. These materials are then removed by water
jets that directs the loosened strainings into a screening trough located inside the drum. In some
designs, the flow is from outside to the inside.

Microstrainers have been used to remove suspended solids from raw water containing high
concentrations of algae. In the treatment of wastewater using oxidation ponds, a large
concentration of algae normally results.

Figure 3
In case of microstrainers, the flow turns a right angle as
it enters the openings of the microstrainer cloth. Thus,
the velocity at point 1, V1 would be approximately zero.
Therefore, for microstrainers: applying the Bernoulli
equation, using the equation of continuity, and prefixing
the coefficient of discharge as was done for the bar
screen, produce

In the absence of experimentally determined data, a value of 0.60 may be assumed for Cd.
Also, from the equation, as the microstrainer clogs, the value of A2 will progressively
decrease; thus the head loss rises to infinity, whereupon, the strainer ceases to function.
Example 1
A bar screen measuring 2 m by 5 m of surficial flow area is used to protect the pump in a
shoreline intake of a water treatment plant. The plant is drawing raw water from the river at
a rate of 8 m3/s. The bar width is 20 mm and the bar spacing is 70 mm. If the screen is 30%
clogged, calculate the head loss through the screen. Assume Cd = 0.60.
Grit Chamber
Grit chamber is the second unit operation used in primary treatment of wastewater and it
is intended to remove suspended inorganic particles such as sandy and gritty matter from
the wastewater. A chamber in which the velocity of waste flow is reduced to a point
where the denser sand and other grit (with min size of 0.2 mm of specific gravity 2.7) will
settle out, but the organic solids will remain in suspension. The settled material is buried
or used for fill. The grit chamber is used to remove grit, consisting of sand, gravel, cinder,
or other heavy solids materials that have specific gravity much higher than those of the
organic solids in wastewater. Grit chambers are provided to protect moving mechanical
equipment like pumps from abrasion and abnormal wear; avoid deposition in pipelines,
channels, and conduits; and to reduce frequency of digester cleaning.
The grit chamber is divided in four compartments as inlet zone, outlet zone, settling zone and
sludge zone

Now for 100 percent removal of the

particles with settling velocity Vs
Vo, we have
Horizontal Flow Rectangular Grit Chamber
The wastewater moves through this channel in more or less plug flow condition with minimal
mixing to support settling of the particles. Higher length to width ratio of the channel is used to
minimize mixing. For this purpose a minimum allowance of approximately twice the maximum
depth or 20 to 50% of the theoretical length of the channel should be given for inlet and outlet
zones. The width of this channel is kept between 1 and 1.5 m and the depth of flow is normally
kept shallow. A free board of minimum 0.3 m and grit space of about 0.25 m is provided. For
large sewage treatment plant, two or more number of grit chambers are generally provided in
parallel. The detention time of 30 to 60 seconds is recommended for the grit chamber.
Disposal of Grit
Considerable quantities of grit will be collected at the sewage treatment plant, about 0.004
to 0.2 m3/ML. Quantity of grit will be more particularly for combined system. Necessary
arrangement should be made at the treatment plant for collection, storage and disposal of
this grit matter. The grit collected can be disposed in the following manner:
• In large treatment plant, grit is incinerated with sludge
• In the past, grits along with screening was dumped into sea.
• Generally, grit should be washed before disposal to remove organic matter.
•Land disposal after washing is most common.
FLOW EQUALIZATION

Flow equalization is used to minimize the variability of water and

wastewater flow rates and composition. Each unit operation in a treatment
plant is designed for specific wastewater characteristics. Improved efficiency
and control are possible when all unit operations are carried out at uniform
flow conditions. If there exists a wide variation in flow composition over
time, the treatment efficiency of the overall process performance may
degrade severely. These variations in flow composition could be due to
many reasons, including the cyclic nature of industrial processes, the sudden
occurrence of storm water events, and seasonal variations. To dampen
these variations, equalization basins are provided at the beginning of the
treatment plant.
Equalization basins in a treatment system can be located in-line or off-line.
Figures 1a,b depict the typical layouts of both types of equalization practice
with respect to the rest of the unit operations.

In in-line equalization, 100% incoming raw wastewater directly enters into the
equalization basin, which is then pumped directly to other treatment units (e.g.,
primary treatment units).

In side-line or offline equalization, the basin does not directly receive the
incoming wastewater. Rather, an overflow structure diverts excess flow from the
incoming raw wastewater into the basin. Water is pumped from the basin into
the treatment stream to augment the flow as required.
Flow Equalization Basin Calculations
There are two methods used to compute equalization volume.

1. The first method relies on computing the equalization volume based on the
excess daily average flow storage. The required volume is determined
graphically by constructing a hydrograph. The function of the basin is to store
flows in excess of the average daily flow and to divert this flow during times
when the inflow is less that the average daily flow. This method is regarded as a
flow balance approach. This method is the most common method for computing
equalization basin volume.

2. The second method computes the volume based on mass loading variations
within an acceptable range. This method is regarded as a composition balance
approach.

The selection of a particular method depends on the type of flow, flow variations,
and overall composition of the flow. Flow balance is used when the composition of
incoming water is relatively constant but the flow varies over time. The composition
balance method is used when the rate of inflow is fairly constant and the
composition varies with time.
For flow equalization cumulative flow is plotted verses time over equalization period i.e.
24 hr. The maximum volume with respect to constant discharge line is the equalization
volume required.
The purpose of equalization for industrial wastewater treatment facilities is:
1. For dampening of organic fluctuations to avoid shock loading on biological wastewater
treatment system.
2. To minimize flow surges to physical-chemical treatment systems.
3. To control pH or to minimize the chemical requirements for neutralization.
4. To provide continuous feed to biological systems over periods when the manufacturing plant
is not operating.
5. To controlled discharge of industrial waste to municipal sewers.
6. To prevent high concentrations of toxic materials from entering the biological treatment
plant.
Benefits of using Flow equalization tanks:
1. Equalization improves sedimentation efficiency by improving hydraulic detention
time.
2. The efficiency of a biological process can be increased because of uniform flow
characteristics and minimization of the impact of shock loads and toxins during
operation. pH can be stabilized.
3. The effluent quality and thickening performance of secondary sedimentation tanks
following biological treatment is improved through constant solid loading
4. Manual and automated control of flow-rate-dependent operations, such as chemical
feeding, disinfection, and sludge pumping, are simplified.
5. Treatability of the wastewater is improved and some BOD reduction and odor removal
is provided if aeration is used for mixing in the equalization basin.
6. In chemical treatment, damping of mass loading improves chemical feed control and
process reliability
7. Effluent –filtration surface area requirements are reduced, filter performance is
improved and more uniform filter back wash cycles are possible.
 Primary Treatment

Primary Clarifier
• Purpose: to remove settleable organics and floating
scum (grease and oils).
• Efficiencies:
– Suspended solids 50 – 65%
– BOD 30 – 35%
• Primary clarifiers are either circular or rectangular.
They are very similar to sedimentation basins used in
water treatment except that scum removal is always
provided in addition to sludge collection.
Primary sedimentation in a municipal wastewater treatment plant is
generally plain sedimentation without the use of chemicals. In
treating certain industrial wastes chemically aided sedimentation may
be involved. In either case, it constitutes flocculent settling, and the
particles do not remain discrete as in the case of grit, but tend to
agglomerate or coagulate during settling. Thus, their diameter keeps
increasing and settlement proceeds at an over increasing velocity.
Consequently, they trace a curved profile.

The settling tank design in such cases depends on both surface

loading and detention time.
A Circular Primary Sedimentation Tank
An Empty Primary Clarifier
An Operating Primary Clarifier
Oil Skimmer in a Primary Clarifier
 Primary Clarifiers
Design Criteria
• Type II Settling Clarifier: during settling organic solids
come in contact with each other and aggregate
increasing the particle size and settling rate.
Aggregation increases with time, therefore detention
time is important.
• Td: 90 – 150 min at average flow (Avg 2 hr)
• Overflow rate: 600 – 1,200 gpd/ft2
• Weir loading rate: 10,000 – 15,000 gpd/ft.
 Sludge Quantities
• Quantity of sludge collected in the primary clarifier depends on:
– Specific gravity of the dry solids
– % moisture
– Efficiency of settling

• The following relationship is used to determine the specific gravity of the sludge
(mixture of solids and water):
S = Sp. Gr. of sludge
Ss = Sp. Gr. of dry solids
Sw = Sp. Gr. of water (1.0)
Ps = % solids (sludge)
Pw = % water (sludge)

Ps Pw
1 100 100
 
S Ss Sw
 Sludge Quantities
• The volume of sludge can be determined from
the following relationship:
7.48 Ws 7.48 Ws
V 
 100  Pw  % S 
  S   S
 100   100 
 
S = specific gravity of sludge
V = sludge volume, gals
Ws = dry weight of solids, lb
 = specific weight of water (62.4 lb / ft3)
(from Peavy, Rowe, and Tchobanoglous, 1985, p. 228)
 Primary Treatment Efficiency
• BOD = 30 – 35% SS = 50 – 65%
• Wastewater entering secondary treatment
Strong: BOD = 260–280 mg/L
SS= 120–175 mg/L
Medium: BOD= 145–155 mg/L
SS= 80–110 mg/L
Weak: BOD= 70–80 mg/L
SS= 35–50 mg/L
Forms of BOD: (a) Colloidal
(b) Soluble/Dissolved
Problem: Determine the quantity of primary sludge per million gallons for domestic sewage
with the following characteristics: SS = 200 mg/L
Ss = 1.4 % moisture = 95%
Suspended solids removal efficiency = 60%

Problem: Design a rectangular sedimentation tank to treat 2.4 million litres of raw water per
day. The detention period may be assumed to be 3 hours.
M sludge  QC * Efficiency
 8.34lb 
M sludge  
 1MG * 200 mg / L * 
 0.6
 MG * mg / L 
M sludge  1000lb
1 Ps / 100 Pw / 100 0.05 0.95
     0.99
S Ss Sw 1.4 1.0
S  1.01
7.48Ws 7.48 *1000 gal
V    2375
(% s / 100)  S 0.05 * 62.4 *1.01 MG
Solution: Raw water flow per day is 2.4 x 106 l. Detention period is 3h.
Volume of tank = Flow x Detention period = 2.4 x 103 x 3/24 = 300 m3
Assume depth of tank = 3.0 m.
Surface area = 300/3 = 100 m2
L/B = 3 (assumed). L = 3B.
3B2 = 100 m2 i.e. B = 5.8 m
L = 3B = 5.8 X 3 = 17.4 m
Hence surface loading (Overflow rate) = 2.4 x 106 = 24,000 l/d/m2 < 40,000
l/d/m2 (OK)
100
 Theory of Secondary Treatment

Classification of Micro organisms

Nutritional Requirements: On the basis of chemical form of carbon required,
microorganisms are classified as
Autotrophic: organisms that use CO2 or HCO3- as their sole source of carbon.
Heterotrophic: organisms that use carbon from organic compounds.
Energy Requirements: On the basis of energy source required, microorganisms are
classified as
Phototrophs: organisms that use light as their energy source.
Chemotrophs: organisms that employ oxidation-reduction reactions to provide
energy. They are further classified on the basis of chemical compounds oxidized
(i.e., electron donor)
Chemoorganotrophs: Organisms that use complex organic molecules as their
electron donor.
Chemoautotrophs: Organisms that use simple inorganic molecules such as
hydrogen sulfide or ammonia as their electron donor.
Temperature Range: On the basis of temperature range within which they can
proliferate, microorganisms are classified as
Psychrophilic: organisms whose growth is optimum within 15 to 30°C.
Mesophilic: organisms whose growth is optimum within 30 to 45°C.
Thermophilic: organisms whose growth is optimum within 45 to 70°C.
Oxygen Requirements: On the basis of oxygen requirement microorganisms
are classified as
Aerobes: organisms that use molecular oxygen as electron acceptor.
Anaerobes: organisms that use some molecule other than molecular
oxygen as electron acceptor.
Facultative organisms : organisms that can use either molecular oxygen or
some other chemical compound as electron acceptor.
Growth Pattern of Micro organisms
When a small number of viable bacterial cells are placed in a close vessel containing
excessive food supply in a suitable environment, conditions are established in which
unrestricted growth takes place. However, growth of an organism do not go on indefinitely,
and after a characteristic size is reached, the cell divides due to hereditary and internal
limitations. The growth rate may follow a pattern similar to as shown in figure:
The curve shown may be divided into six well defined phases:

Lag Phase: adaptation to new environment, long generation time and null growth
rate.

Accelaration phase: decreasing generation time and increasing growth rate.

Exponential phase: minimal and constant generation time, maximal and constant
specific growth rate and maximum rate of substrate conversion.

Declining growth phase: increasing generation time and decreasing specific

growth rate due to gradual decrease in substrate concentration and increased
accumulation of toxic metabolites.

Stationary phase: exaustion of nutrients, high concentration of toxic metabolites,

and cells in a state of suspended animation.

Endogenous phase: endogenous metabolism, high death rate and cell lysis.
Biomass Growth Rate
The most widely used expression for the growth rate of micro organisms is given by Monod:
Total rate of microbial growth, dx = mmXS
dt Ks+ S
where,
mm= maximum specific growth rate
X = micro organism concentration
S = substrate concentration
Ks= substrate concentration at one half the maximum growth rate
Similarly, rate of substrate utilization,
dS = k X S
dt Ks+ S
where,
k = maximum specific substrate utilization rate
Maintenance as Endogenous Respiration
Net growth rate of micro organisms is computed by subtracting from the total growth rate,
the rate of micro organisms endogenously decayed to satisfy maintenance energy
requirement. Therefore,
Net rate of microbial growth = mmX S - kdX
Ks+ S
where,
kd = endogenous decay coefficient
Main objectives of biological treatment are:
1. To oxidize dissolved and particulate biodegradable constituents into non-polluting end
products.
2. To remove or transform nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous.
3. To capture non-settleable and suspended solids into a biofilm.
4. To remove specific trace organic compounds.

Biological treatment is basically divided into two main categories: a) aerobic processes,
and b) anaerobic processes. Aerobic means in the presence of air (oxygen) while
anaerobic means in the absence of air (oxygen). These two terms are directly related
to the type of bacteria or microorganisms that are involved in the degradation of
organic impurities in a given wastewater and the operating conditions of the
bioreactor.
Aerobic Processes: Aerobic treatment processes take place in the presence of air and
utilize those microorganisms (also called aerobes), which use molecular/free oxygen to
assimilate organic impurities i.e. convert them in to carbon dioxide, water and
biomass.
Anaerobic Processes: The anaerobic treatment processes take place in the absence of air
(molecular/free oxygen) by those microorganisms (also called anaerobes) which do not
require air (molecular/free oxygen) to assimilate organic impurities. The final products
of organic assimilation in anaerobic treatment are methane and carbon dioxide gas
and biomass.
Comparison of aerobic and anaerobic processes.
Major biological treatment processes used for wastewater treatment
Activated Sludge Process
It is the most widely used process for wastewater treatment. It consists of two sets of basins.
In the first, air is pumped through perforated pipes at the bottom of the basin, air rises
through the water in the form of many small bubbles. These bubbles provide oxygen from the
air to the water and create highly turbulent conditions that favor intimate contact between
cells, the organic material in the water and oxygen. The second basin is a settling tank where
water flow is made to be very quiet so that the cellular material is removed by gravitational
settling. Some of the cell material collected at the bottom is captured and fed back into the
first basin to seed the process. The rest of the sludge is taken for anaerobic digestion.
Activated sludge plant involves:
• wastewater aeration in the presence of a microbial suspension,
• solid-liquid separation following aeration,
• discharge of clarified effluent,
• wasting of excess biomass, and
• return of remaining biomass to the aeration tank.
In activated sludge process wastewater containing organic matter is aerated in an
aeration basin in which micro-organisms metabolize the suspended and soluble
organic matter. Part of organic matter is synthesized into new cells and part is
oxidized to CO2 and water to derive energy. In activated sludge systems the new cells
formed in the reaction are removed from the liquid stream in the form of a flocculent
sludge in settling tanks. A part of this settled biomass, described as activated sludge
is returned to the aeration tank and the remaining forms waste or excess sludge.
Activated Sludge Process Variables
The main variables of activated sludge process are the mixing regime, loading rate, and the
flow scheme.
Mixing Regime
Generally two types of mixing regimes are of major interest in activated sludge process: plug
flow and complete mixing.
The type of mixing regime is very important as it affects (1) oxygen transfer requirements in
the aeration tank, (2) susceptibility of biomass to shock loads, (3) local environmental
conditions in the aeration tank, and (4) the kinetics governing the treatment process.
Loading Rate
A loading parameter that has been developed over the years is the hydraulic retention
time (HRT), θ, d
θ=V V= volume of aeration tank, m3, and Q= sewage inflow, m3/d
Q
Another empirical loading parameter is volumetric organic loading which is defined as the
BOD applied per unit volume of aeration tank, per day.
A rational loading parameter which has found wider acceptance and is preferred is specific
substrate utilization rate, q, per day.
q= Q (SO - Se)
V X
A similar loading parameter is mean cell residence time or sludge retention time (SRT), qc, d
θc = VX
QwXr + (Q-QwXe)
where SO and Se are influent and effluent organic matter concentration respectively,
measured as BOD5 (g/m3), X, Xe and Xr are MLSS concentration in aeration tank, effluent and
return sludge respectively, and Qw= waste activated sludge rate.
Under steady state operation the mass of waste activated sludge is given by
QwXr = YQ (SO - Se) - kd XV
where Y= maximum yield coefficient (microbial mass synthesized / mass of substrate utilized)
and kd = endogenous decay rate (d-1) .
From the above equation it is seen that 1/ θc = Yq - kd
If the value of Se is small as compared SO, q may also be expressed as Food to Microorganism
ratio, F/M
F/M = Q(SO- Se) / XV = QSO / XV
The θc value adopted for design controls the effluent quality, and settleability and
drainability of biomass, oxygen requirement and quantity of waste activated sludge.
Flow Scheme
The flow scheme involves:
• the pattern of sewage addition
• the pattern of sludge return to the aeration tank and
• the pattern of aeration.
Sewage addition may be at a single point at the inlet end or it may be at several points along
the aeration tank. The sludge return may be directly from the settling tank to the aeration tank
or through a sludge reaeration tank. Aeration may be at a uniform rate or it may be varied
from the head of the aeration tank to its end.
EXAMPLE: Design of Completely Mixed Activated Sludge System
Design a completely mixed activated sludge system to serve 60000 people that will give a
final effluent that is nitrified and has 5-day BOD not exceeding 25 mg/l. The following
design data is available.
Sewage flow = 150 l/person-day = 9000 m3/day
BOD5 = 54 g/person-day = 360 mg/l ; BODu = 1.47 BOD5
Total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) = 8 g/person-day = 53 mg/l
Phosphorus = 2 g/person-day = 13.3 mg/l
Winter temperature in aeration tank = 18°C
Yield coefficient Y = 0.6 ; Decay constant Kd = 0.07 per day ; Specific substrate utilization
rate = (0.038 mg/l)-1 (h)-1 at 18°C
Assume 30% raw BOD5 is removed in primary sedimentation, and BOD5 going to aeration
is, therefore, 252 mg/l (0.7 x 360 mg/l).
Design:
(a) Selection of qc, t and MLSS concentration:
Considering the operating temperature and the desire to have nitrification and good sludge
settling characteristics, adopt θc = 5d. As there is no special fear of toxic inflows, the HRT, t may
be kept between 3-4 h, and MLSS = 4000 mg/l.
(b) Effluent BOD5:
Substrate concentration, S = 1 (1/ θc + kd)= 1 (1/5 + 0.07)
qY (0.038)(0.6)
S = 12 mg/l.
Assume suspended solids (SS) in effluent = 20 mg/l and VSS/SS =0.8.
If degradable fraction of volatile suspended solids (VSS) =0.7 (check later), BOD5 of VSS in
effluent = 0.7(0.8x20) = 11mg/l.
Thus, total effluent BOD5 = 12 + 11 = 23 mg/l (acceptable).
(c) Aeration Tank:
VX = YQ θc(SO - S) where X = 0.8(4000) = 3200 mg/l
1+ kd θc
or 3200 V = (0.6)(5)(9000)(252-12) => V= 1500 m3
[1 + (0.07)(5)]
Detention time, t = 1500 x 24 = 4h
9000
F/M = (252-12)(9000) = 0.45 kg BOD5 per kg MLSS per day
(3200) (1500)
Let the aeration tank be in the form of four square shaped compartments operated in two
parallel rows, each with two cells measuring 11m x 11m x 3.1m
(d) Return Sludge Pumping:
If suspended solids concentration of return flow is 1% = 10,000 mg/l
R= MLSS = 0.67
(10000)-MLSS
Qr = 0.67 x 9000 = 6000 m3/d

(e) Surplus Sludge Production:

Net VSS produced QwXr = VX = (3200)(1500)(103/106) = 960 kg/d
θc (5)
or SS produced =960/0.8 = 1200 kg/d
If SS are removed as underflow with solids concentration 1% and assuming specific gravity of
sludge as 1.0,
Liquid sludge to be removed = 1200 x 100/1 = 120,000 kg/d
= 120 m3/d
(f) Oxygen Requirement:
For carbonaceous demand, oxygen required = (BODu removed) - (BODu of solids leaving)
= 1.47 (2061 kg/d) - 1.42 (960 kg/d) = 72.5 kg/h
For nitrification, oxygen required = 4.33 (TKN oxidized, kg/d)
Incoming TKN at 8.0 g/ person-day = 480 kg/day.
Assume 30% is removed in primary sedimentation and the balance 336 kg/day is oxidized to
nitrates.
Thus, oxygen required = 4.33 x 336 = 1455 kg/day = 60.6 kg/h
Total oxygen required = 72.5 + 60.6 = 133 kg/h
Oxygen uptake rate per unit tank volume = 133/1500 = 90.6 mg/h/l tank volume
(g) Power Requirement:
Assume oxygenation capacity of aerators at field conditions is only 70% of the capacity at
standard conditions and mechanical aerators are capable of giving 2 kg oyxgen per kWh at
standard conditions.
Power required = 136 = 97 kW (130 hp)
0.7 x 2
= (97 x 24 x 365) / 60,000 = 14.2 kWh/year/person
Trickling filter is an attached growth process i.e. process in which microorganisms responsible
for treatment are attached to an inert packing material. Packing material used in attached
growth processes include rock, gravel, slag, sand, redwood, and a wide range of plastic and
other synthetic materials.

COMPONENTS OF TRICKLING FILTER

[A] Packing

• Trickling filter uses packing medium composed of crushed stone, slag, rock or plastic over
which wastewater is distributed continuously.

• The ideal medium should have the following properties: high specific surface area, high void
space, light weight, biological inertness, chemical resistance, mechanical durability, and low
cost.

• The important characteristics of medium includes

a) Porosity: It is a measure of the void space available for passage of the wastewater and air
and for ventilation of product gases.
b) Specific surface area: It refers to the amount of surface area of the media that is available
for biofilms growth.
c) Size of the medium ranges from 50-100 mm having specific surface area in the range of 50-
65 m2 /m3 with porosities of 40-50 %.
[B] Wastewater dosing

• Influent wastewater is normally applied from the top of the trickling filter.
• Under a hydraulic head of about 1.0 m, jet action through the nozzles is sufficient to power the rotor.
•As the flow is intermittent, there is enough air circulation through the pores between dosing.
• The distributer arm distributes the wastewater continuously over the medium, which trickles down
through the bed.
•Rotary distributors having 2 to 4 arms. The arms are hollow and contains nozzles through which
wastewater is discharged over the filter bed. Driven either by motor or by dynamic reaction of
wastewater dischargingfrom the nozzles.

[C] Under-drain

• It is used in trickling filters to support the filter medium, collect the treated effluent and the sloughed
biological solids, and circulate the air through the filter.
• The liquid flow in under-drains and collection channels should not be more than half full for adequate
air flows.

[D] Recirculation pump

• In practice, a portion of the wastewater collected in the under-drainage system or settled effluent is
recycled through the bed.
Recirculation has the following advantages;
•Dilution of the influent wastewater.
•Maintenance of more uniform hydraulic and organicloading.
•Reduce odor and fly problem.
Process Description
• The wastewater in trickling filter is distributed over
the top area of a vessel containing non-submerged
packing material.

•Air circulation in the void space, by either natural

draft or blowers, provides oxygen for the
microorganisms growing as an attached biofilm.

•During operation, the organic material present in

the wastewater is metabolised by the biomass
attached to the medium. The biological slime grows
in thickness as the organic matter abstracted from
the flowing wastewater is synthesized into new
cellular material.

•The thickness of the aerobic layer is limited by the

depth of penetration of oxygen into the microbial
layer.
•The micro-organisms near the medium face enter the endogenous phase as the substrate is
metabolised before it can reach the micro-organisms near the medium face as a result of
increased thickness of the slime layer and loose their ability to cling to the media surface. The
liquid then washes the slime off the medium and a new slime layer starts to grow. This
phenomenon of losing the slime layer is called sloughing.
•The sloughed off film and treated wastewater are collected by an underdrainage which also
allows circulation of air through filter. The collected liquid is passed to a settling tank used for
solid- liquid separation.

•The microorganisms used are mainly facultative bacteria that decompose the organic material
in the wastewater along with aerobic and anaerobic bacteria. It includes Achromobacter,
Flavobacterium, Psudomonas, and alcaligenes. In the lower reaches of the filter, the nitrifying
bacteria are usually present.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE OPERATION OF TRICKLING FILTER

[A] Organic loading

• A high organic loading rate results in a rapid growth of biomass. Excessive growth may
result in plugging of pores and subsequent flooding of portions of the medium.

[B] Hydraulic flow rates

• Increasing the hydraulic loading rate increases sloughing and helps to keep the bed open.
Range of hydraulic and organic loading rates for trickling filters are shown in table 1.

[C] Relative temperature of wastewater and ambient air

• Cool water absorbs heat from air, and the cooled air falls towards toward the bottom of
the filter in a concurrent fashion with the water.
• Warm water heats the air, causing it to rise through the underdrain and up through the
medium.
• At temperature differentials of less than about 3 to 40C, relatively little air movement
results, and stagnant conditions prevent good ventilation.
• Extreme cold may result in icing and destruction of the biofilms.
ADVANTAGES OF TRICKLING FILTER :

• Satisfactory BOD reduction

• Effective in handling shock loads
• Low operating cost

DISADVANTAGES OF TRICKLING FILTER :

• Significant head loss (3-5 m)
• Experts required for design, construction and maintenance
• Not all parts and materials may be available locally
• High construction cost
• Odor and fly (Psychodaalternata) problem
Types of Filters
Trickling filters are classified as high rate or low rate, based on the organic and hydraulic
loading applied to the unit.

• The hydraulic loading rate is the total flow including recirculation appied on unit area of
the filter in a day, while the organic loading rate is the 5 day 20°C BOD, excluding the BOD
of the recirculant, applied per unit volume in a day.

•Recirculation is generally not adopted in low rate filters.

•A well operated low rate trickling filter in combination with secondary settling tank may
remove 75 to 90% BOD and produce highly nitrified effluent. It is suitable for treatment of
low to medium strength domestic wastewaters.

•The high rate trickling filter, single stage or two stage are recommended for medium to
relatively high strength domestic and industrial wastewater. The BOD removal efficiency is
around 75 to 90% but the effluent is only partially nitrified.

•Single stage unit consists of a primary settling tank, filter, secondary settling tank and
facilities for recirculation of the effluent. Two stage filters consist of two filters in series
with a primary settling tank, an intermediate settling tank which may be omitted in certain
cases and a final settling tank.
 Design Criteria for Trickling Filter

Characteristics Standard or low rate High rate

Depth of media 1.8-2.4 m 1.2-1.8 m
Hydraulic loading (m3/m2/d) 1-4 10-30
(including recirculation)
Organic loading (kg/d/m3) 0.08-0.32 0.32-1
(excluding recirculation)
Recirculation ratio --- 1-4
Performance efficiency :
National research council (NRC) empirical formula is used for calculating efficiency of
Trickling Filter:
The efficiency of the second stage of two stage filters is given by;
Anaerobic biological treatment

Anaerobic biological treatment is used frequently as anaerobic digesters to treat complex

organic solid wastes such as primary and secondary wastewater sludges.

However, it has not been used much in the past to treat low strength organic wastewaters
from industrial and domestic applications.

Aerobic processes were preferred for treatment of these wastewater streams because they
are easy to operate and can tolerate process fluctuations.

In comparison, anaerobic reactors were assumed to be less stable under fluctuations, more
expensive to install and require long start-up time.

This belief was due to limited knowledge of the process and reactor design.

Now a days the anaerobic treatment has emerged as a practical and economical alternative
to aerobic treatment due to significant advantages over aerobic treatment.
Anaerobic Degradation of Organic matter

The factors that determine the removal efficiency of biodegradable organic matter are:
1. The nature and composition of the organic matter to be removed

2. Suitability of environmental factors

3. Sludge retention time in the reactor

4. The intensity of mixing, hence contact between bacterial biomass and organic matter.

5. Specific loading of organic matter with respect to bacterial sludge mass, and retention
time.
 The transformation of complex macromolecules of organic matter present in wastewater
into biogas requires several groups of microorganisms. The reaction sequence of the
anaerobic digestion of complex macromolecules is presented in Figure 1

Different steps are necessary for the anaerobic digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids.
Four different phases can be distinguished in the overall conversion process of organic matter
to biogas as 1) Hydrolysis, 2) Acidogenesis, 3) Acetogenesis, and 4) Methanogenesis.
According to trophic requirements the bacteria involved can be conveniently divided into
three groups as follows.

Hydrolytic bacteria - acidogens: These bacteria hydrolyze the substrate (macromolecule)

into short-chain organic acids and other small molecules, which can be taken up and
converted into soluble short-chain organic molecules, e.g., carbohydrates are converted
into low-chain fatty acids, alcohols, hydrogen and carbon dioxide under anaerobic
condition.

Strict anaerobes are composed most part of this group of bacteria having generation time
of 2 to 3 hours.

The principle intermediate compounds resulting from conversion of the substrate during
acid fermentation are acetate, propionate, butyrate, hydrogen gas, carbon dioxide, lactate,
formate, ethanol, valeric acid, isovaleric acid, and caproic acid.

The distribution of final product depends on the species of acidogenic bacteria and on the
environmental conditions such as pH and temperature.
Obligate Hydrogen Producing Acetogens (OHPA): This group converts compound formed in
the first stage into acetic acid and hydrogen. Low hydrogen pressure favours these
reactions

From the viewpoint of the thermodynamics, a negative value of free energy change is
necessary for any reaction to proceed without input of external energy. This theory
apparently suggests that hydrogen producing acetogenic bacteria cannot obtain energy for
growth from these reactions. However, the value of free energy change in the actual
environment surrounding the bacteria, ΔG', is different from that of ΔGo' and depends on
the concentrations of substrates and products as follows
Only low partial pressure of
hydrogen can give negative
values of ΔG' in above
equations, because
substrate concentration
cannot be so high and
acetate concentration is not
so low in anaerobic
reactors.
Methanogenic bacteria - methanogens: These bacteria produce methane. The doubling
time of these bacteria is 2 - 10 days. These are further divided into two groups as:

The methane producing bacteria are strict anaerobes which are extremely sensitive to
changes in temperature and pH. These bacteria are active in two temperature zones,
namely, in the mesophilic range (30oC - 35oC) and in the thermophilic range (50oC - 60oC).
However, anaerobic processes have been operated at 15oC successfully when sufficient
residence time for these bacteria was provided.
Factors Affecting Anaerobic Digestion

Development of anaerobic process technology is dependent on a better understanding of the factors

that are associated with the stability of the biological processes involved.

Process instability is usually indicated by a rapid increase in the concentration of volatile acids in the first
stage of the reaction. Low pH with a concurrent reduction in methane gas production indicates the
methanogenesis more susceptible to upset.

Acclimatization of the microbes to a substrate may take 3 to 8 weeks.

Sufficiently acclimated bacteria show greater stability towards stress-inducing events such as hydraulic
overloads, fluctuations in temperature, volatile acid and ammonia concentrations, etc.

Several environmental factors can affect anaerobic digestion such as specific growth rate, decay rate, gas
production, substrate utilization, etc. The environmental factors of primary importance are discussed
below.

1 pH, Acidity and Alkalinity

Optimum pH range of 6.6 – 7.6 is considered favourable for the methane producing bacteria, which
cannot tolerate the fluctuations. Whereas non-methanogenic bacteria are able to function in a range of
pH form 5 – 8.5. It is necessary to prevent the accumulation of acids to a level, which may become
inhibitory to the methanogenic bacteria. For this, it is important that there should be sufficient buffering
capacity present in the reactor, which may prevent the reactor from souring. Although, the carbonates
and bicarbonates of sodium and calcium are required to be added to the digesters to provide buffering
action, lime (Calcium hydroxide) is most commonly used for this purpose.
2 Temperature

Anaerobic process can take place over a wide range of temperatures (4 – 600C). Once as effective
temperature is established, small fluctuations can result in a process upset. Although most of the sludge
digester are operated in the mesophilic range (30 – 400C), methanogenesis can occur at temperatures as
low as 12 to 150C. The effect of increasing temperature on biochemical reaction rate in the range of 4 –
250C is profound. The optimum temperature for growth of anaerobic microorganisms is 350C or greater.

At temperature of less than 250C, the digestion rate decreases sharply and conventional anaerobic
reactors in operation at ambient temperatures in cooler climates may require detention times of as
much as 12 weeks for the treatment of sewage sludges.

The majority of industrial digester systems operate in the mesophilic range of 30 – 400C. It is probable
that increase in microbial reaction rates at the elevated temperatures of thermophilic processes (50 –
600C), and hence decrease in SRT may prove advantageous under some circumstances.

Temperature change of even a few degrees can result in a marked upset in microbial metabolism and
rapid alterations in reactions in the reactor and may necessitate several days for the recovery. A
consistent temperature throughout the system can be provided by adequate mixing of the reactor by
paddle, gas sparging, or flow over heat exchangers.
3 Nutrients

Anaerobic wastewater treatment processes are often used for industrial waste with only minor amount
of nutrients present. This might result in nutrient deficiency, unless additional nutrients are
supplemented.
• Optimum N/P ratio can be considered to be 7.
• Minimum COD/N-ratio 400/7 is considered reasonable for high rate anaerobic processes (operated in
SLR of 0.8 – 1.2 kg COD /kg VSS.d).
•Minimum COD/N-ratio 1000/7 is considered reasonable for low rate processes (<0.5 kg COD /kg VSS.d)

Other than nitrogen and phosphorous, trace metals also are essential for anaerobic processes. The
presence of trace metals such as molybdenum, selenium, tungsten and nickel is probably necessary for
the activity of several enzyme systems. When these trace elements are not present in the wastewater,
addition of nickel, cobalt, and molybdenum can increase methane production and allow greater
volumes of wastewater to be effectively treated by decreasing the reactor residence time.

4 Inhibitory Substances

Inhibition of the anaerobic digestion process can be mediated to varying degrees by toxic materials
present in the system. These substances may be components of the influent wastewater or byproducts
of the metabolic activities in the digester. Inhibitory toxic compounds include sulphides, consequential
in the processing of waste from sources such as molasses fermentation, petroleum refining and tanning
industries. Volatile acid and other microbial products can accumulate and inhibit reactor-buffering
capacity. Inhibition may also arise as the consequence of the increased levels of ammonia, alkali, and
the alkaline earth metals, and heavy metals in the system.
Merits of Anaerobic Decomposition Process
It has been recognized that the anaerobic treatment is in many ways ideal for wastewater treatment
and has several merits mentioned as below:

• A high degree of waste stabilization;

• A low production of excess biological sludge and this sludge can be directly dried on sludge drying bed
without further treatment due to better dewatering ability;

• Low nutrient requirements, hence anaerobic treatment is attractive for the treatment of wastewater
where external nutrient addition is required;

• No oxygen requirement, hence saving in power required for supply of oxygen in aerobic methods;

• Production of valuable byproduct, methane gas;

• Organic loading on the system is not limited to oxygen supply hence higher loading rate as compared
to aerobic processes can be applied.

• Less land required as compared to many aerobic process.

• Non-feed conditions for few months do not affect adversely to the system and this makes
it attractive option for seasonal industrial wastewater treatment.
Limitations of Anaerobic Treatmeent
However, anaerobic treatment processes are not largely being implemented, because of many factors.

• Anaerobic microorganisms, especially methanogens have slow growth rate.

• At lower HRTs, the possibility of washout of biomass is more prominent due to higher upflow velocity.
This makes it difficult to maintain the effective number of useful microorganisms in the system. To
maintain the population of anaerobes, large reactor volume or higher HRTs with low upflow velocity is
required. This may ultimately provide longer SRTs more than 40 days for high rate systems. Thus,
provision of larger reactor volume or higher HRTs ultimately leads to higher capital cost.

•Low synthesis / reaction rate hence, long start-up periods and difficulty in recovery from upset
conditions are some of the notable disadvantages.

Special attention is therefore required towards controlling the factors that affect process
adversely; importantly among them being environmental factors such as, temperature, pH, and
concentration of toxic substances. Hence, skill supervision is required for operating anaerobic reactor at
optimal performance.