3.

3 Carbohydrates
STUDENT NOTES
OCR Y1 / AS Level Biology A
Module 2 Foundations in Biology
Chapter 3 Biological Molecules
Thursday, 18 April 2019 Pages 46 & 47 In the
OUP Textbook

3.3 Carbohydrates
Lesson Objectives:
To beshould
Learners able to:
be able to demonstrate and apply their knowledge and understanding of:
• The concept of monomers and polymers and the importance of condensation and
hydrolysis reactions in a range of biological molecules
• The chemical elements that make up biological molecules
• The ring structure and properties of glucose as an example of a hexose
monosaccharide and the structure of ribose as an example of a pentose
monosaccharide
• The synthesis and breakdown of a disaccharide and polysaccharide by the
formation and breakage of glycosidic bonds
• The structure of starch (amylose and amylopectin), glycogen and cellulose
molecules
• How the structures and properties of glucose, starch, glycogen and cellulose
molecules relate to their functions in living organisms
 Learning Objectives

• Describe the structures of glucose and

ribose as examples of pentose sugars
• Explain the condensation and hydrolysis
of disaccharides and polysaccharides
• Analyse the structure and properties of
Starch and Glycogen
• Link to cellulose
 Carbohydrates and Sugars
Carbohydrates are made of only three elements:
• Carbon
• Hydrogen
• Oxygen
Carbohydrates exist in three structures:
• Monosaccharides – Small, simple sugars
• Disaccharides – large sugars
• Polysaccharides – long chain carbohydrates
 Carbohydrate Structures
Carbohydrate Example Molecules

Monosaccharide Glucose, Fructose

and Ribose
Disaccharide Lactose and
Sucrose
Polysaccharide Glycogen, Cellulose
and Starch
Introducing carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are a group of substances used as both
energy sources and structural materials in organisms.

All carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen,

with the general formula: Cx(H2O)y.

There are three main groups of carbohydrates:

 monosaccharides – these are simple sugars, with the

general formula (CH20)n, where n can be 3–7
 disaccharides – these are ‘double sugars’, formed
from two monosaccharides
 polysaccharides – these are large molecules formed
from many monosaccharides.

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Glucose
Glucose is an abundant and very important monosaccharide.
It contains six carbon atoms so it is a hexose sugar. Its
general formula is C6H12O6.
Glucose is the major energy source for most cells. It is highly
soluble and is the main form in which carbohydrates are
transported around the body of animals.
The structure of glucose can be represented in different ways:

straight chain ring ring (simplified)

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Alpha and beta glucose
Glucose exists in different forms called structural isomers.
Two common isomers are alpha glucose and beta glucose.
6 6
5 5
alpha 4 1 4 1
beta
glucose glucose
3 2 3 2

The only difference between these two isomers is the position

of the –OH group attached to carbon 1. In alpha glucose it is
below the carbon and in beta glucose it is above the carbon.

This minor structural difference has a major effect on the

biological roles of alpha and beta glucose.

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Alpha and Beta Glucose
How do we make disaccharides and
polysaccharides?
- Condensation Reaction
• This is a reaction between two
monosaccharides to for disaccharides

• What does ‘condensation’ suggest occurs in

these reaction?

• A glyosidic bond is formed?

Condensation Reactions
Pentoses – Sugars of DNA
Pentose monosaccharides contain five carbon atoms. Like
hexoses, pentoses are long enough to form a ring.
Two important pentose molecules are the structural isomers
ribose and deoxyribose. These are important constituents
of RNA and DNA.
5 5

4 1 4 1

3 2 3 2

ribose deoxyribose
The only difference between them is that ribose has one
H atom and one –OH group attached to carbon 2,
whereas deoxyribose has 2 H atoms and no –OH group.

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Maltose, sucrose and lactose
Maltose (malt sugar) is
formed from two glucose
molecules joined by an
alpha 1–4 glycosidic bond.

Sucrose (table sugar) is

formed from glucose and
fructose joined by an
alpha 1–4 glycosidic bond.

Lactose (milk sugar) is

formed from galactose
and glucose joined by a
beta 1–4 glycosidic bond.

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What are polysaccharides?
Polysaccharides are polymers containing many
monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds. Like
disaccharides, polysaccharides are formed by
condensation reactions.

Polysaccharides are mainly used as an energy store and as

structural components of cells.

The major polysaccharides are starch and cellulose in

plants, and glycogen in animals.

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Properties and uses of starch
Starch is the major carbohydrate storage molecule in plants.
It is usually stored as
intracellular starch
grains in organelles
called plastids.
Plastids include green
chloroplasts (e.g. in
leaves) and colourless
amyloplasts (e.g. in
potatoes).
Starch is produced from glucose made during photosynthesis.
It is broken down during respiration to provide energy and is
also a source of carbon for producing other molecules.

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What is glycogen?
Animals do not store carbohydrate as starch but as glycogen.

Glycogen has a similar

structure to amylopectin,
containing many alpha 1–6
glycosidic bonds that produce an
even more branched structure.

Glycogen is stored as small

granules, particularly in
muscles and liver.

Glycogen is less dense and more soluble than starch, and is

broken down more rapidly. This indicates the higher
metabolic requirements of animals compared with plants.

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Breaking Down – Hydrolysis Reactions
• Hydrolysis reactions are used to break
polysaccharides and disaccharides into
monosaccharides

• Hydrolysis reactions are the opposite of

condensation reactions

How would you suggest a hydrolysis reaction

takes place?
What is cellulose?
Cellulose is another polysaccharide and is the main part of
plant cell walls. It is the most abundant organic polymer.

Unlike starch, cellulose is very strong, and prevents cells

from bursting when they take in excess water.

Cellulose consists of long

chains of beta glucose
molecules joined by beta
1–4 glycosidic bonds.

The glucose chains form

rope-like microfibrils,
which are layered to form
a network.

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Cellulose
Cellulose
Polysaccharides: true or false?

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Exam Question
 Review Questions
Answer the past exam
questions on the sheet