Power system stability

The stability of a power system is its ability to return to normal or

stable operation after having been subjected to some form of
disturbance. In other words stability or state of equilibrium of a power
system means maintaining synchronous operation of the system.
Power system stability problems are classified into three basic
types: steady state, dynamic and transient. In all stability studies, the
objective is to determine whether or not the rotors of the machines
being disturbed return to constant speed operation.
Steady state stability is basically concerned with the
determination of the upper limit of machine loadings before loosing
synchronism, provided the loading is increased gradually.
 Dynamic stability is concerned with the response to small
disturbances in a power system (variations in loadings, changes in
turbine speed etc.) which produce oscillations. The system is said to
be dynamically stable if these oscillations do not acquire more than
certain amplitude and die out quickly. If these oscillations
continuously grow in amplitude, the system is dynamically unstable.
Dynamic stability can be significantly improved through the use of
power system stabilizers. The system’s response to such small
disturbances may not become apparent up to 30 seconds.
Transient stability is concerned with response to large
disturbances such as those brought about by faults, sudden change of
load etc., which may cause large changes in rotor speeds, power
angles and power transfers. Transient stability is a fast phenomenon
usually evident within a few seconds.
Power flow under steady state
For the purpose of basic understanding, we will consider a short
lossless transmission line. Fig. 1 shows a lossless short transmission
line.

E= sending end voltage

V= receiving end voltage
δ= load angle (phase angle between E and V)
PS, QS - real and reactive powers at sending end
PR, QR - real and reactive powers at receiving end
 _ _*
Power at sending end = PS  j QS  E I
_ _ _* _*
_
EV _*
E V
I or I
jX  jX
_  _* _* 
E  E  V 
P S  j QS   
 jX
_
Now, E  E   E cos   j sin  
_
and V  V00
_ _*
so V VV
Therefore,
 
E cos   j sin  E cos   j sin   V 
P S  j QS   
 jX

E 2  EV cos   j EV sin  E V sin  E 2  EV cos 

   j
 jX X X

E V sin  E 2  EV cos 
PS  , QS 
X X

For a lossless line

E V sin 
P S  PR 
X
The steady state stability limit of a particular circuit of a power system
is defined as the maximum power that can be transmitted to receiving
end without loss of synchronism.
Maximum power that can be transmitted

EV
 when δ = 900
X
Rotor dynamics and swing equation
The differential equation governing the rotor dynamics of
synchronous machine can be written as

d 2m
J 2
 Tm  Te
dt
where
J= Moment of inertia of rotor, in kg m2
θm = Angular displacement of rotor with respect to a stationary
axis, in mechanical radians
t = Time in seconds
Tm = Mechanical torque supplied by prime mover, in Nm
Te = Electromagnetic torque developed, in Nm

Multiplying both sides of the above equation by ωsm (rotor speed

i.e. synchronous speed in mechanical radians/second) we get
 d 2m
J sm 2
 Pm  Pe W
dt
Where
Pm = Mechanical power input
Pe = Electrical power output
Therefore,
2
2 d 2 e
J   se  Pm  Pe W
P dt 2

where θe = angle in electrical radians

or
d 2 e
M 2
 Pm  Pe W
dt 2
 
2
where M (inertia constant/angular momentum)  J   se
P
 Now,
   e   se t , rotor angular displacement from a
synchronously rotating reference frame
d 2  d 2 e
2
 2
dt dt

Therefore,

d 2
M 2
 Pm  Pe W
dt

This is the swing equation.

The swing equation describes the rotor dynamics for a
synchronous machine.
Stability and equal area criterion
In an unstable system, δ increases indefinitely with time and the
machine loses synchronism. In a stable system, δ undergoes
oscillations, which eventually die out. Therefore, for a stable system
d must be zero at some instant.
dt
From swing equation we have:
d 2
M 2
 Pm  Pe  Pa , Pa = accelerating power
dt
d 2 Pa
 
dt 2 M
d
Multiplying both sides of the above equation by 2 we have:
dt
d d 2 2P a d
2  2 
dt dt M dt
which upon integration with respect to time gives:
 2 
2
 d 
    Pa d
 dt  M 0
δ0 is the initial power angle before the rotor begins to swing
d
because of disturbance. The stability criterion  0 implies that

dt
 Pa d  0
0

The condition of stability can therefore be stated as: a system is

stable if the area under Pa-δ curve reduces to zero at some value of δ.
In other words the positive area under Pa-δ curve must be equal to
the negative area and hence the name “equal area” criterion of
stability. To illustrate the equal area criterion we shall consider the
following cases.
Case I: Sudden change in mechanical input
To illustrate this case we shall consider the system of Fig. 2.
In Fig. 3 point ‘a’ corresponding to δ0 is the initial steady state
operating point. At this point Pm0 = Pe. Let the mechanical input to
the rotor be suddenly increased to Pm1.
The accelerating power Pa = Pm1 - Pe causes the rotor speed and the
rotor angle to increase. At angle δ1, Pa = Pm1 - Pe = 0 (point ‘b’) but
the rotor angle continues to increase as ω > ωs. Pa now becomes
negative (decelerating), the rotor speed begins to reduce but the rotor
angle continues to increase till at angle δ2, ω = ωs once again (point
‘c’). The decelerating area A2 equals the accelerating area A1 i.e.

2
 Pa d  0
0

Since the rotor is decelerating the speed reduces below ωs and

the rotor angle begins to reduce. It can be easily understood that
the system oscillates about the point ‘b’ and finally settles at this
point because of the inherent system damping.
 At the point ‘b’ Pm1  Pe  Pmax sin 1

1 2
A1   P m1  Pe d  
A 2   Pe  Pm1 d
0 1

For a stable system: A1 = A2

As Pm1 is increased, a limiting condition is finally reached when A2
equals the area above the Pm1 line as shown in Fig. 4. Under this
condition, δ2 acquires the maximum value such that
1 Pm1
2  max    1    sin
Pmax
Any further increase in Pm1 means that the area available for A2 is
less tan that for A1, so that the excess kinetic energy causes δ to
increase beyond point ‘c’ and the decelerating power changes to
accelerating power, with the system consequently becoming
unstable.
Thus there is an upper limit to sudden increase in mechanical
input (Pm1 – Pm0) for the system in question to remain stable.
Case II: Occurrence of fault
If a fault occurs in a system, δ begins to increase under the influence of
positive accelerating power. The system will become unstable if δ
becomes very large. If the system is to remain stable the fault must be
cleared within a critical angle so as to satisfy the equal area criterion.
Let us consider the system of Fig. 5. operating with mechanical input
Pm at a steady angle of δ0 (Pm = Pe) as shown by the point ‘a’ on the Pe –
δ diagram of Fig. 6. Now if a three phase fault occurs at point F, the
electrical output of the generator instantly reduces to zero i.e. Pe = 0 and
the operating point (state point) drops to ‘b’. The acceleration area A1
begins to increase and so does the rotor angle while the state point
moves along ‘bc’. At time tc corresponding to angle δc the faulty line is
cleared by opening of line CB. tc and δc are known as clearing time and
clearing angle respectively. The system once again becomes healthy and
transmits i. e.
Pe  Pmax Sin  the state point shifts to ‘d’ on the
Pe   Curve. The rotor now decelerates and the decelerating area
A2 begins while the state point moves along ‘de’.
If an angle 1 can be found such that A2 = A1 the system is found to
be stable. The system finally settles down at the steady operating
point ‘a’ in an oscillatory manner because of inherent damping.
If the clearing of the fault is delayed, A1 and  will increase till 1 =
max shown in Fig. 7. For a clearing angle greater than this value, the
system will be unstable as A2<A1. The maximum allowable value of
the clearing time and angle for the system to remain stable are known
as critical clearing time and angle.

 max =  - 0 and Pm = Pmax sin 0

 cr

A1   Pm  0 d  Pm cr  0 
0
 max

A2   P
max sin   Pm  d  Pmax cos  cr  cos  max  Pm  max   cr 
 cr
 For the system to be stable A2 = A1
Pm
or cos  cr   max   0   cos  max
Pmax
 cr = critical clearing angle

 cr  cos 1   2  0 sin  0  cos  0  (Substituting Pm

 sin ,  max     0 )
Pmax
Case III: sudden loss of one of parallel lines
Let us consider a single machine tied to infinite bus bar through two
parallel lines as shown in Fig. 8.

Before switching off a line, the power angle curve is given by:
EV
Pe1  sin   Pmax I sin 
X s  X1 parallel X 2 

After switching off line 2, the power angle curve is given by:
EV
Pe 2  sin   Pmax II sin 
X s  X1
/

Both these curves are shown in Fig. 9.

 Pmax II  Pmax I

as
X /
d 
 X1  X d  X1 parallel X 2 

The system is operating initially with a steady power transfer Pe = Pm

at a torque angle of 0 on curve I. Immediately on switching off line
2, the electrical operating point shifts to curve II (point ‘b’).
Accelerating energy corresponding to area A1 is put into rotor
followed by decelerating energy for  > 1 corresponding to area A2.
If A1=A2, the system will be stable and will finally operate at ‘c’.