“Of all the

HAZARDS,
FEAR is the worst.”

~ Sam Snead
VOLCANIC
HAZARDS
PYROCLASTIC
FLOWS
 KARO, NORTH SUMATRA, INDONESIA - JUNE 20: Mount Sinabung spews
pyroclastic smoke, seen from Tiga Kicat village on June 20, 2015 in Karo
District, North Sumatra, Indonesia. According to The National Disaster
Mitigation Agency, more than 10,000 villagers have fled their homes since the
authorities raised the alert status of Mount Sinabung erupting to the highest
level. (Photo by Ulet Ifansasti/Getty Images)
PYROCLASTIC FLOWS
 (also known scientifically as a pyroclastic density
current) hot, fast moving mixtures of ash, rock
fragments and gas flow from a collapsed eruption
column or lava dome, travel down valleys and
cause total devastation of the area over which
they flow.
 are the signature fireworks of the most explosive
kinds of volcanic eruptions. These mixtures of
ash, lava blebs and broiling gas exceed
temperatures of 1,000°C (1,832°F) and move at
speeds of up to 700 kilometers per hour (about
450 miles per hour).
PYROCLASTIC FLOWS
 Pyroclastic flows that contain a much higher proportion of gas
to rock are known as "fully dilute pyroclastic density currents"
or pyroclastic surges.
 The lower density sometimes allows them to flow over higher
topographic features or water such as ridges, hills, rivers and
seas. They may also contain steam, water and rock at less than
250 °C (482 °F); these are called "cold" compared with other
flows, although the temperature is still lethally high.
 Cold pyroclastic surges can occur when the eruption is from a
vent under a shallow lake or the sea. Fronts of some
pyroclastic density currents are fully dilute; for example,
during the eruption of Mount Pelée in 1902, a fully dilute
current overwhelmed the city of Saint-Pierre and killed nearly
30,000 people.
 Mt. Augustine, Alaska -- A pyroclastic flow from the 1996 eruption of Mt.
Augustine in the Aluetian Islands. The glowing avalanche races down the flanks
of the volcano at hurricane-force speeds. The avalanche is partly disguised by
the more bouyant, billowing ash cloud that rises above it. Courtesy of M.E.
Yount, USGS.
PYROCLASTIC FLOWS
 Pyroclastic flows normally touch the ground and hurtle
downhill, or spread laterally under gravity. Their speed
depends upon the density of the current, the volcanic
output rate, and the gradient of the slope. They are a
common and devastating result of certain explosive
eruptions.
 Pyroclastic flows have been the main cause of destruction
and loss of life in Montserrat since the onset of the
Soufriere Hills Volcano eruption in 1995.
 They differ from pyroclastic surges in that they are more
dense and usually travel with a greater physical force
whereas surges usually contain more gases.
 Mt. St. Helens Pyroclastic Flow -- Subsequent, smaller eruptions followed
the climactic eruption of Mt. St. Helens on May 18, 1980. The eruption shown
here occurred on July 22, 1980. The pyroclastic flow shown in the foreground
is advancing down the north flank of the volcano. Whereas some pyroclastic
flows are generated by collapse of growing lava domes, the pyroclastic flow
shown here was generated by partial collapse of the vertical eruption column.
The vertical eruptive column was a sustained event that increased in intensity
over a period of many seconds until pumice fragments bean to fall toward the
crater flow, thus generating a fast-moving pyroclastic flow. Courtesy of J.W.
Vallance, USGS.
PYROCLASTIC FLOWS
 Most pyroclastic flows consist of two parts: a
lower (basal) flow of coarse fragments that moves
along the ground, and a turbulent cloud of ash
that rises above the basal flow. Ash may fall from
this cloud over a wide area downwind from
the pyroclastic flow.
 The flow is fluidized because it contains water
and gas from the eruption, water vapor from
melted snow and ice, and air from the flow
overriding air as it moves downslope
 The image on the right shows the formation of pyroclastic flows during a
1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens (photo courtesy of J.M. Vallance).
 Pyroclastic flow during August 7, 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption. The view is
from Johnston Ridge, located 8 km (5 mi) north of Mount St. Helens.
 Pyroclastic flow, Mt. Pelée, Matrinique (1902) -- The village of St. Pierre on the island of
Martinique was destroyed by a pyroclastic flow similar to the one shown here. This photo was taken
a few months after the destruction of St. Pierre. Pyroclastic flows had not been previously described
by volcanologists. This type of pyroclastic flow is called a nuée ardente, composed of hot,
incandescent solid particles derived from the collapse of a lava dome. Other types of pyroclastic
flows, derived from collapse of the eruptive column, are pumice bearing, and their deposits are
called ignimbrites. Photo by Lacroix, 1902.
Origin of Term

 The word pyroclast is derived from

the Greek πῦρ, meaning "fire", and κλαστός,
meaning "broken in pieces".
 A name for some pyroclastic flows is nuée
ardente (French, "burning cloud"); this was first
used to describe the disastrous 1902 eruption
of Mount Pelée on Martinique. In the dark, these
pyroclastic flows glowed red.
Causes
There are several mechanisms that can produce a pyroclastic
flow:
 Fountain collapse of an eruption column from a Plinian
eruption (e.g., Mount
Vesuvius' destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii, see Pliny
the Younger). In such an eruption, the material forcefully
ejected from the vent heats the surrounding air and the
turbulent mixture rises, through convection, for many
kilometers. If the erupted jet is unable to heat the
surrounding air sufficiently, convection currents will not be
strong enough to carry the plume upwards and it falls,
flowing down the flanks of the volcano.
Causes

 Fountain collapse of an eruption

column associated with a Vulcanian
eruption (e.g., Montserrat's Soufrière Hills volcano
has generated many of these deadly pyroclastic
flows and surges.) The gas and projectiles create
a cloud that is denser than the surrounding air
and becomes a pyroclastic flow.
Causes

 Frothing at the mouth of the vent during

degassing of the erupted lava. This can lead to
the production of a rock called ignimbrite. This
occurred during the eruption of Novarupta in
1912.
Causes

 Gravitationalcollapse of a lava
dome or spine, with subsequent
avalanches and flows down a steep
slope (e.g., Montserrat's Soufrière
Hills volcano, which caused nineteen
deaths in 1997).
Causes

 Thedirectional blast (or jet) when part of a

volcano collapses or explodes (e.g.,
the eruption of Mount St. Helens in May 18,
1980). As distance from the volcano
increases, this rapidly transforms into a
gravity-driven current.
 A scientist examines pumice blocks at the edge of a pyroclastic flow deposit
from Mount St. Helens
Size and Effects
 The volumes range from a few hundred cubic meters to more than
1,000 cubic kilometres. The larger ones can travel for hundreds of
kilometres, although none on that scale have occurred for several
hundred thousand years. Most pyroclastic flows are around 1 to 10
cubic kilometres and travel for several kilometres.
 Flows usually consist of two parts: the basal flow hugs the ground and
contains larger, coarse boulders and rock fragments, while an
extremely hot ash plume lofts above it because of the turbulence
between the flow and the overlying air, admixing and heating cold
atmospheric air causing expansion and convection.
 The kinetic energy of the moving cloud will flatten trees and buildings
in their path. The hot gases and high speed make them particularly
lethal, as they will incinerate living organisms instantaneously:
 The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, Italy, for example, were
engulfed by pyroclastic surges on August 24, 79 AD with many lives
lost.
 Human remains of the victims of the 79 BC's Vesuvio Volcan eruption are
lightened at the Pompeii Archaeological Site on August 6, 2011 as part of
the show ''The Moons of Pompeii.'' The new version of the show is held
every weekend since May 7 until the end of October.
Size and Effects
 A pyroclastic surge killed volcanologists Katia and Maurice Krafft and 41
other people on Mount Unzen, in Japan, on June 3, 1991. The surge
started as a pyroclastic flow and the more energised surge climbed a
spur on which the Kraffts and the others were standing; it engulfed
them, and the corpses were covered with about 5 mm of ash.
 The 1902 eruption of Mount Pelée destroyed the Martinique town of St.
Pierre. Despite signs of impending eruption, the government deemed St.
Pierre safe due to hills and valleys between it and the volcano, but the
pyroclastic flow charred almost the entirety of the city, killing all but
two of its 30,000 residents.
 On 25 June 1997 a pyroclastic flow travelled down Mosquito Ghaut on
the Caribbean island of Montserrat. A large, highly energized pyroclastic
surge developed. This flow could not be restrained by the Ghaut and
spilled out of it, killing 19 people who were in the Streatham village
area (which was officially evacuated). Several others in the area
suffered severe burns.
Size and Effects
 Plenty of hikers, journalists, volcanologists and indeed civilians have met
their ends at the hands of a pyroclastic flow. They are indiscriminate killers,
wiping out anything and anyone in their path – well, unless your name was
Ludger Sylbaris.
 Sylbaris was living on the French-Caribbean island of Martinique in 1902.
Although accounts differ as to why, he was imprisoned for a serious offence in
the city of St. Pierre on the night of May 7. He was thrown into solitary
confinement; his cell was both windowless and underground. It was even
reinforced with bombproof walls in order to make sure he couldn’t escape.
 Then, at breakfast time the very next day, Martinique's Mt. Pelée erupted and
blackened the sky with a terrifying, apocalyptic ash cloud. When this
collapsed, pyroclastic flows formed and rushed down into the city, completely
flattening it and killing all 40,000 people living there.
 Everyone was turned into dust – everyone, of course, except for the man in
the bombproof cell. Although he was badly burned, he survived, and was
rescued from the rubble four days later. He was pardoned of his crimes, and
joined Barnum & Bailey’s travelling circus, where he was known as the man
who lived through Doomsday.
 Human remains of the victims of the 79 BC's Vesuvio Volcan eruption are
lightened at the Pompeii Archaeological Site on August 6, 2011 as part of the
show ''The Moons of Pompeii.'' The new version of the show is held every
weekend since May 7 until the end of October.
Interaction with water
 Testimonial evidence from the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, supported
by experimental evidence, shows that pyroclastic flows can cross
significant bodies of water. However, that might be a pyroclastic
surge, not flow, because the density of a gravity current means it
cannot move across the surface of water. One flow reached
the Sumatran coast as much as 48 km (30 mi) away.
 A 2006 BBC documentary film, Ten Things You Didn't Know About
Volcanoes, demonstrated tests by a research team at Kiel University,
Germany, of pyroclastic flows moving over water. When the
reconstructed pyroclastic flow (stream of mostly hot ash with varying
densities) hit the water, two things happened: 1) the heavier
material fell into the water, precipitating out from the pyroclastic
flow and into the liquid; 2) the temperature of the ash caused the
water to evaporate, propelling the pyroclastic flow (now only
consisting of the lighter material) along on a bed of steam at an
even faster pace than before.
Interaction with water

 During some phases of the Soufriere Hills volcano on

Montserrat, pyroclastic flows were filmed about 1 km
offshore. These show the water boiling as the flow passed
over it. The flows eventually built a delta, which covered
about 1 km2.
 A pyroclastic flow can interact with a body of water to
form a large amount of mud, which can then continue to
flow downhill as a lahar. This is one of several mechanisms
that can create a lahar.
On the Moon
 In1963, NASA astronomer Winifred
Cameron proposed that the lunar
equivalent of terrestrial pyroclastic flows
may have formed sinuous rilles on
the Moon. In a lunar volcanic eruption, a
pyroclastic cloud would follow local relief,
resulting in an often sinuous track. The
Moon's Schröter's Valley offers one example.
 KARO, NORTH SUMATRA, INDONESIA - JUNE 19: Residents look to sky as Mount
Sinabung spews pyroclastic smoke, seen
Types of Pyroclastic Flows
 Ignimbrites and nuees ardentes are two types of pyroclastic flows.
 An ignimbite contains mostly vesiculated material whereas a nuee ardente
contains denser material (Francis, 1993).
 Nuee ardente means glowing cloud and was named for the pyroclastic flows
seen at Mount Pelee. These flows were often accompanied by a cloud of ash
elutriated from the flow. When the incadescent ash particles are observed at
night, the flow looks like a glowing cloud moving away from the volcano.
 The first forms when an ash column emerging from an eruption
catastrophically falls back to Earth. Perhaps the gas content of the magma
has dropped and the explosive, decompressive thrust at the volcano's vent
runs out of power. Maybe the turbulent ash column mixes in too much cold
air, or the lava in the column has cooled down too much. Either way, when
the ash plume suddenly becomes denser than the surrounding air, it collapses
and falls back onto itself, producing pyroclastic flows.
 For the second, rarer type, we need to go back to Mount St Helens as it was back in
May 1980. This volcano didn’t just erupt out of its vent at the summit; a huge internal
pressure build up had nowhere to go but sideways, and the volcano obliterated itself by
forcing its contents out of its side in a devastating lateral blast.
Types of Pyroclastic Flows
 Ignimbrites and nuees ardentes are two types of pyroclastic flows.
 An ignimbite contains mostly vesiculated material whereas a nuee ardente
contains denser material (Francis, 1993).
 Nuee ardente means glowing cloud and was named for the pyroclastic flows
seen at Mount Pelee. These flows were often accompanied by a cloud of ash
elutriated from the flow. When the incadescent ash particles are observed at
night, the flow looks like a glowing cloud moving away from the volcano.
 The first forms when an ash column emerging from an eruption
catastrophically falls back to Earth. Perhaps the gas content of the magma
has dropped and the explosive, decompressive thrust at the volcano's vent
runs out of power. Maybe the turbulent ash column mixes in too much cold
air, or the lava in the column has cooled down too much. Either way, when
the ash plume suddenly becomes denser than the surrounding air, it collapses
and falls back onto itself, producing pyroclastic flows.
 For the second, rarer type, we need to go back to Mount St Helens as it was back in
May 1980. This volcano didn’t just erupt out of its vent at the summit; a huge internal
pressure build up had nowhere to go but sideways, and the volcano obliterated itself by
forcing its contents out of its side in a devastating lateral blast.
Nuee ardente
 The French geologist Alfred Lacroix attached the
name nuée ardente (glowing cloud) to the
pyroclastic flow from Mt. Pelée that destroyed
the city of St. Pierre in 1902. The flow was
generated from the explosive collapse of a
growing lava dome at the summit of the volcano,
which then swept down on the city. Thus, nuée
ardente eruptions are often called Peléen
eruptions. However, this term cannot be as
narrowly defined as the other eruption types,
because nuée ardentes are often linked with
both Plinian and Vulcanian activity.
Nuee ardente

 Although the term nuée ardente is now applied to all

pyroclastic flows generated by dome collapse, it is
somewhat of a misnomer to describe these features as a
"glowing cloud." A more precise term would be glowing
avalanche. The bulk of these hot block-and-ash flows hug
the ground surface, but are disguised by an overlying
cloud of fine ash particles that are winnowed out of the
flow by a processes called elutriation. Nuée ardentes,
therefore, are composed of two related parts: a
pyroclastic avalanche largely hidden from view by an
overlying ash cloud, sometimes called a co-ignimbrite ash.
 Mt. Unzen nuée ardentes -- The
diagram here demonstrates the
sequence of events associated with the
1991-95 nuée ardente eruptions
from Mt. Unzen, Japan. Collapse of a
growing lava dome generates the nuée
ardente. Within seconds a faster-
moving cloud of smaller ash-sized
fragments (the ash-cloud surge) forms
above and in front of the nuée
ardente. In some cases, dome collapse
is attributed to explosive eruption at
the summit crater. Explosive collapse
may clear the throat of the volcano,
thus generating vertical eruption
columns.
 Over a four-year period, hundreds of
nuée ardentes erupted from Mt.
Unzen's summit area. Many of these
swept down the populated Mizunashi
River valley displacing thousands of
people and destroying several hundred
homes and precious farmland.
PUMICE FLOWS
 Pumice flows are pumice-rich pyroclastic flows derived from the collapse
of an eruption column. The lowermost part of the eruption column is
called the gas thrust region. Here, the density of the eruption column is
greater than the density of the surrounding air. The column continues to
rise, however, because of the thrust provided by the release and rapid
expansion of volcanic gas. Occasionally, the gas thrust region may
become so chock-full of debris that its high density cannot be supported
by the thrust of expanding gases. The column thus collapses downward
under gravity as a mass of vesiculating pumice that advances rapidly down
the flanks of the volcano.
 Although both nuée ardentes and pumice flows are fluidized, pumice
flows are more energetic and mobile. This is partly attributed to their
lower densities, but also to their greater store of kinetic energy
generated by vertical drops up to several kilometers above the volcano's
summit. The further it falls, the greater its kinetic energy, and the further
and faster it will travel horizontally.
PUMICE FLOWS
 Pumice flows have a tripartite division. The main body
hugs the ground surface and is dominated by pumice
fragments in an ash matrix. Like nuée ardentes, this
pyroclastic avalanche is overlain by an ash
cloud of elutriated fine ash. An additional component of a
pumice flow is the ground surge. These are forward-
springing jets of incandescent ash that occur in the
advancing head of the flow. They advance with a rolling
and rapidly puffing movement which is thought to be
caused by the ingestion of air in the front of the flow. Air
ingestion produces strong fluidation in flow front, and
explosive heating of the air causes some of the material
to be hurled forward as a low-density, turbulent surge.
PUMICE FLOWS
 A single Plinian-type eruption may generate hundreds of pumice flows
which typically flow down valleys radiating outward from the summit
of the volcano. Individual flows may vary in length from a few
kilometers to tens of kilometers. These are miniscule, however, in
comparison to the massive pumice flows generated by caldera
collapse. Caldera-generated flows are not restricted to valleys, but
rather fill in valleys and adjacent low ridges to produce pumice-
dominated pyroclastic sheet flows that can obliterate an area the size
of Ohio in a few minutes. These huge eruptions can eject a thousand
cubic kilometers of material from ring fractures in just a few hours.
The last such eruption on earth took place at Toba, Indonesia, about
74,000 years ago to deposit an ignimbrite with a volume of over 2000
cubic kilometers. Similar eruptions in the United States occurred less
than two million years ago at the Long
Valley, Valles and Yellowstone calderas.
Pyroclastic flows form in different ways:
 Collapse of eruption column: during a
highly explosive eruption, the column ejected
upwards into the atmosphere cools and can
become too cool and dense to maintain upward
momentum.
 "Boiling over" from eruptive vent: during
an explosive eruption, material is erupted without
forming a high plume and rapidly moves down
slope.
 Collapse of lava domes or flows: The fronts of
lava flows or domes can become so steep that
they collapse due to gravitational force.
Pyroclastic flows form in different ways:

 With rock fragments ranging in size from ash to

boulders that travel across the ground at speeds
typically greater than 80 km per hour (50
mph), pyroclastic flowsknock down, shatter, bury
or carry away nearly all objects and structures in
their path. The extreme temperatures of rocks
and gas inside pyroclastic flows, generally
between 200°C and 700°C (390-1300°F), can
ignite fires and melt snow and ice.
Pyroclastic flows form in different ways:

 Pyroclasticflows vary considerably in size

and speed, but even relatively small flows
that move less than 5 km (3 mi) from a
volcano can destroy buildings, forests, and
farmland. On the margins of pyroclastic
flows, death and serious injury to people
and animals may result from burns and
inhalation of hot ash and gases.
Pyroclastic flows form in different ways:

 Pyroclasticflows generally follow valleys or

other low-lying areas and, depending on
the volume of rock debris carried by the
flow, they can deposit layers of loose rock
fragments to depths ranging from less than
one meter to more than 200 m (up to about
700 ft).
Pyroclastic flows can move very fast.
 Small pyroclastic flows can move as fast as 10 to
30 m/s while larger flows can move at rates of
200 m/s (Bryant, 1991). Nuees ardentes have
been known to extend 50 kilometers from their
source and Ignimbrites, because of the lighter
weight material that they carry, can extend 200
km from their source (Bryant, 1991 and Scott,
1989). At Mount Pinatubo in the Philipines,
pyroclastic flow deposits were 220 m thick in
some valleys but averaged 30 to 50 m thick in
others (Wolfe, 1992). Pyroclastic flows have been
known to top ridges 1000 m high (Bryant, 1991).
Pyroclastic flows can be very hot.

 In fact, pyroclastic flows from Mount Pelee

had temperatures as high as 1075 degrees
C! Some Pyroclastic flows from Pinatubo
had temperatures of 750 degrees C and
pyroclastic flows from Mount St. Helens had
temperatures of 350 degrees C. Such high
temperature flows can burn manmade
structures, vegetation, and, for those
unlikely enough to be caught by then,
human skin.
Pyroclastic flows can also lead to secondary
hazards, especially flooding and lahars by:

 Eroding, melting and mixing with snow and ice,

thereby sending a sudden torrent downstream.
 Damming or blocking streams in volcanic valleys,
which may create lakes behind the blockage that
eventually overtop and erode the blockage
producing a rush of water and volcanic material
downstream.
 Increasing the rate of stream runoff and erosion
during rainstorms due to the creation of an easily
eroded landscape with sparse vegetation.
 Building remnant in Francisco Leon destroyed by pyroclastic surges and flows
during eruption of El Chichon volcano in Mexico 1982. Reinforcement rods in
concrete bend in direction of flow.
 Pyroclastic flows sweep down the flanks of Mayon
Volcano, Philippines, in 1984
 Rocks from the Bishop tuff, uncompressed
with pumice (on left); compressed with fiamme (on right).
 Pyroclastic flow entering the ocean, Montserrat 1996
Some Pyroclastic Flows of the 20th
Century
 Pyroclastic flows have been witnessed at:
1. Soufrière, St. Vincent, 1902;
2. Mont Pelée, 1902-3, 1929-30;
3. Mayon Volcano, Philippines, 1968, 1983 and 1993;
4. Mount St. Helens, Washington, 1980; El Chichón, Mexico, 1983;
5. Kelut, Java, 1983;
6. Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, 1991-93; and
7. Mount Unzen Volcano, Japan, 1991-95.
 More than 30,000 people have died from direct engulfment by
pyroclastic flows since the beginning of this century, most of them at
the 1902 Mont Pelée eruption.
PREVENTION IS GREAT!

 People living near the summit of an active

volcano, especially those in valley areas, are
most likely to be in danger from a pyroclastic
flow. The best course of action for these people
to take when a volcano erupts is to evacuate
valley areas and head for higher ground away
from the volcano. Of course, if the volcano gives
ample warning that it is going to erupt, then the
best thing to do is evacuate the area and get as
far away from the volcano as possible.
SUMMARY
 Pyroclastic flows and lahars are the greatest volcanic
hazards. More people have died due to these hazards
than any other volcanic hazard (Chester, 1993).
Pyroclastic flows can incinerate, burn, and asphyxiate
people. Gases within a pyroclastic flow can explode and
cause ash to rain down on nearby areas as shown in this
image near Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines (photo by
M.T. Dolan). Pyroclastic flows travel long distances so
their threat is far reaching. What is worse is they also can
transform into lahars which travel even farther distances
from the volcano and can produce even greater hazards.
SUMMARY

 Scientists recognize the hazards of pyroclastic

flows, and so there is currently a lot of research
going on in this area.
 Important research with regard to hazards
prevention is the study of past pyroclastic flow
deposits. Areas that have old pyroclastic flow
deposits are likely to receive new pyroclastic
flow deposits if the volcano erupts again.
VOLCANIC
HAZARDS
 VOLCANIC
BALLISTIC
PROJECTILES
Volcanic Ballistic Projectiles (VBPs)
 are rock/magma fragments of variable size that
are ejected from active vents during explosive
eruptions.
 VBPs follow almost parabolic trajectories that are
influenced by gravity and drag forces before they
reach their impact point on the Earth's surface.
 Owing to their high temperature and kinetic
energies, VBPs can potentially cause human
casualties, severe damage to buildings as well as
trigger fires.
Volcanic Ballistic Projectiles (VBPs)

 Ballistic
projectiles are rocks that an
erupting volcano may hurl into the air.
These blocks and bombs travel like
cannonballs and usually land within 2km of
the vent (but can travel as far as 5km, or
even further, if the eruption is very
explosive.)
 Scientist standing in a crater formed by a ballistic
projectile (block visible to the right), Montserrat 1996
TEPHRA
 Tephrais fragmental material
produced by a volcanic
eruption regardless of composition,
fragment size or emplacement
mechanism.
 When a volcano erupts it will sometimes eject material such as rock
fragments into the atmosphere. This material is known as tephra.
 The largest pieces of tephra (greater than 64 mm) are
called blocks and bombs. Blocks and bombs are normally shot ballistically
from the volcano (refer to the gas thrust zone described in the direct
blast section). Because these fragments are so large they fall out near their
source. Blocks and bombs as large as 8-30 tons have fallen as far away as 1
km from their source (Bryant, 1991). Small blocks and bombs have been
known to travel as far away as 20-80 km (Scott, 1989). Some of these blocks
and bombs can have velocities of 75-200 m/s (Bryant, 1991). Smaller ejecta
such as lapilli (2-64 mm) and ash (<2 mm) which are convected upward by the
heat of the eruption will fall out farther from the volcano. Most particles
greater than a millimeter in size will fall out within 30 minutes of the time
they are erupted. The smallest particles which are less then .01 mm can
stay in the atmosphere for two or three years after a volcanic eruption.
Sometimes these particles produce fantastic sunsets such as was seen after
the eruptions of Krakatau in 1883 and Pinatubo in 1991. Some scientists
believe that these particles may contribute to global warming.
 Understanding
Volcanic Hazards
can save lives.
 THANK YOU.

Ms. Kathy Claire P. Ballega