Assalam-o-Alaikum

Research
Methodology
 Presented to:
Ma’aM SaMina Rana
 Presented by:
“EaglES”
Hera Mushtaq
Afifa Subhan
Komal Adrees
Asma Shamshad
Momna Shahid
Filza Cheema
Sana Khurshid
 SAMPLING DESIGN PROCESS
Define Population

Determine Sampling Frame

Determine Sampling Procedure

Probability Sampling
Simple Random Non-Probability Sampling
Sampling Convenient sampling
Stratified Sampling Judgmental sampling
Cluster Sampling Quota sampling
Systematic Sampling Snow Ball Sampling
Determine Appropriate
Sample Style

Execute Sampling Design

 QUANTITATIVE SAMPLING
The purpose of quantitative sampling is to identify participants from
whom to seek some information.
Important Issues
• Representation – the extant to which the sample is representative of the population
• Generalization – the extent to which the results of the study can be reasonably extended from the
sample to the population
• Sampling Error – the chance occurrence that a randomly selected sample is not representative of the
population due to errors inherent in the sampling technique
• Sampling Bias – some aspects of the researcher’s sampling design creates bias in the data
Three Fundamental Steps
 Identify a population
 Define the sample size
 Select the sample
TYPES OF SAMPLING IN QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH

Non-
Probability Probability
Samples Samples
Probability sampling is a sampling technique, in which the
subjects of the population get an equal opportunity to be
selected as a representative sample.
 RANDOM SAMPLING
Random sampling is the purest form of probability sampling. In this method subjects are
selected so that all members of a population have and equal and independent chance of being selected.
Each unit has an equal opportunity of being selected. It is the chance which determines that which items
shall be included.
Advantages
1. Easy to conduct
2. High probability of achieving a representative sample
3. Meets assumptions of many statistical procedures
4. Minimal knowledge of population is needed
Disadvantages
1. Identification of all members of the population can be difficult
2. Contacting all members of the sample can be difficult
3. Low frequency of use
4. Does not use researcher’s expertise
 RANDOM SAMPLING

Selection Process
• Identify and define the population
• Determine the desired sample size
• List all members of the population
• Assign all the members on the list
• Select and arbitrary starting point from a table of random numbers and read the
appropriate number of digits
 STRATIFIED SAMPLING
Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to random sampling because it reduces
sampling errors. The population is divided into two or more groups called strata, according to some criterion, such as
geographic location, grade level, age, or income, and subsamples are randomly selected from each strata.
Advantages
1. More accurate sample
2. Can be used for both proportional and non-proportional samples
3. Representation of subgroups in the sample
4. Characteristics of each stratum can be estimated and comparisons made
Disadvantages
1. Identification of all members of the population can be difficult
2. Identifying members of all subgroups can be difficult
3. Requires accurate information on proportions of each stratum
 STRATIFIED SAMPLING

Selection Process
1. Identify and define the population
2. Determine the desired sample size
3. Identify the variable and subgroups for which you want to generate appropriate
representation
4. Classify all members of the population as members of one of the identified subgroups
 CLUSTER SAMPLING
oIt is the process of randomly selecting intact groups, not individuals, within
the defined population sharing similar characteristics. Clusters are locations
within which an intact group of members of the population can be found (e.g.
Neighborhoods, school districts, schools, classrooms).
oEach cluster must be mutually exclusive and together the clusters must include
the entire population.
o After clusters are selected, then all units within clusters are selected. No units
from non-selected clusters are included in the sample.
oIn cluster sampling, the clusters are the primary sampling unit (PSU’s) and the
units within the clusters are the secondary sampling units (SSU’s).
 CLUSTER SAMPLING
Advantages
1. Very useful when populations are large and spread over a large
geographic region
2. Do not need the names of everyone in the population
3. Can estimate characteristics of both cluster and population
Disadvantages
1. Representation is likely to become an issue
2. The cost to reach an element to sample is very high
3. Each stage in cluster sampling introduces sampling error – the more stages
there are, the more error there tends to be
 CLUSTER SAMPLING
Selectin Process
1. Identify and define the population
2. Determine the desired sample size
3. Identify and define a logical cluster
4. List all clusters that make up the population of clusters
5. Estimate the average number of population members per cluster
6. Determine the number of clusters needed by dividing the sample size by the estimated size
of a cluster
7. Randomly select the needed numbers of clusters
8. Include in the study all individuals in each selected cluster
 SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING
Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called
and 9th name sampling technique. In systematic sampling we chooses the subject in a
very systematic way. We can choose every “9th” participant from a complete list.
Advantages
1. Very easily done
2. Simple to draw sample
3. Easy to verify
Disadvantages
1. Subgroups
2. Some members of the population don’t have an equal chance of being included
3. Periodic ordering required
It’s a method of sampling where in, it is known that which
individual from the population will be selected as a
sample.
 CONVENTIONAL SAMPLING
Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research when the researcher is interested in
getting an inexpensive approximation. Conventional sampling involves choosing respondents at the
convenience of the researcher.
Advantages
Very low cost
Extensively used/understood
Disadvantages
Variability and bias cannot be measured or controlled
Projecting data beyond sample not justified
Restrictions of generalization
Results are usually unsatisfactory
 QUOTA SAMPLING
It is most commonly used in non probability sampling. Quotas set up according to some
specified characteristics. The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups, just as in
stratified sampling.
Advantages
1. Used when research budget is limited
2. Very extensively used/understood
3. No need for list of population elements
Disadvantages
1. Bias and variability cannot be measured
2. Time consuming
3. Projecting data beyond sample is not justified
 JUDGMENTAL SAMPLING
It is a common non-probability method. In judgmental sampling researcher employs
his/her own “expert” judgment. He selects the sample which he thinks to be most typical of the
universe.
Advantages
1. There is a assurance of quality response
2. Meet the specific objective
Disadvantages
1. Bias selection of sample may occur
2. Time consuming process
3. No objective way of evaluating reliability of results
 SNOWBALL SAMPLING
Snowball sampling is a special non-probability method . It is used when the desired
sample characteristic is rare. The research starts with a key person and introduce the next one
to become a chain. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subject to generate
additional subjects.
Advantages
1. Low cost
2. Useful in specific circumstances and for locating rare populations
Disadvantages
1. Not independent
2. Projecting data beyond sample is not justified
•Researchers in qualitative research select their
participants according to their characteristics
and knowledge. For this he does purposeful
sampling.
•Researcher chooses persons or sites which
provide specific knowledge about the topic of
the study.
Maximal Variation Sampling
It is when we select individuals that differ on a certain characteristic. In this strategy
we should first identify the characteristics and then find individuals or sites which display that
characteristic.
Typical Sampling
It is when we study a person or site that is “typical” to those unfamiliar with the
situation. We can select a typical sample by collecting demographic data or survey data about
all cases.
Theory or Concept Sampling
It is when we select individuals or sites because they can help us to generate a theory
or specific concepts within the theory. In this strategy we need a full understanding of the
concepts or the theory expected to discover during the study.
Homogeneous Sampling
In it we select certain sites or people because they possess similar characteristics. In
this strategy, we need to identify the characteristics and find individuals or sites that posses it.
Critical Sampling
In this strategy we study an exceptional case that represents the central phenomenon in
dramatic terms.
Opportunistic Sampling
It is used after data collection begins, when we may find that we need to collect new
information to answer our research questions.
There are two
Sampling
main types of Errors
errors which
can arise
when a
sample of
observation is Non-
taken from a sampling
Errors
population
 • Differences between the population that exist
Sampling only because of the observation that happened
to be selected for the sample.
Errors

• More serious and are due to the mistakes

Non-sampling made in the acquisition of data or due to the
sample observation being selected improperly.
Errors
 Selection
Specific of
Problem Appropriat
Selection e Sampling
Technique

Systematic
Documenta Controlling
tion of Effective Methodolo
Related Enumeration gical Bias
Research and
Pretesting
 CONCLUSION
• A sample is a smaller collection of units from a population used to
determine truths about that population. It is the process of selecting a
number of individuals for a study in such a way that the individuals
represent the larger group from which they were selected.
• There are two main techniques of sampling i.e. probability and non-
probability. These sampling methods are selected in such a way that they
become the representative of the population. They provide the most valid
or credible results because they reflect the characteristics of the
population from which they are selected