Hypothesis testing and setting objectives

Prof. H.S. Prakash Ph.D.

UGC-BSR-Faculty Fellow

Department of Studies in Biotechnology

University of Mysore
Manasagangtri, Mysuru 570 006

Workshop on “Research Methods and Analysis”

International Center, University of Mysore
14th March 2019
Framing a scientific paper
The structure of a paper
mirrors that of an
hourglass, opening
broadly and narrowing to
the specific question,
hypothesis, methods, and
results of the study.
Effective papers widen
again in the discussion
and conclusion,
connecting the study back
to the existing literature
and explaining how the
current study filled a
knowledge gap.
(Taylor Chock, 2016)
 RQ vs Hypothesis
• General concern: Hb of mother and birth weight
of baby
• RQ: Is anaemia in pregnancy associated with low
BW in new born?
• Hypothesis: There is no difference in the
incidence of LBWs in the mothers who are not
anaemic.
• RH: The incidence of LBWs in mothers who are
anaemic is higher than those who are not.
 Research hypothesis
• Hypo + thesis
Hypo: Composition of two or more variables which is
to be verified
Thesis: Position of these variables in the specific frame
of reference
• A hypothesis is a tentative solution of a problem
• It is a specific, testable prediction about what is
expected to happen in a study.
• Presumptive statement of a proposition which the
investigator seeks to prove
• Offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified
empirically and based on some rationale
 Key Terms to Know
• Hypothesis: An educated guess about the
possible relationship between two or more
variables.
• Variable: A factor or element that can change in
observable and measurable ways.
• Operational Definition: A full description of
exactly how variables are defined, how they will
be manipulated, and how they will be measured.
 Nature of hypothesis
• Conceptual
• Verbal statement in a declarative form
• Verbal expression of ideas and concepts ready
enough for empirical verification
• Contains same empirical reference and indicates
the tentative relationship between two or more
variables
• Related to the future verification and not to the
past facts and information
• Pivot of a scientific research
 Functions of hypothesis (McAshan 1979)
• Temporary solution of a problem concerning
some truth which enables an investigator to start
his research work
• Offers a basis in establishing the specifies - what
to study and may provide possible solutions to the
problem
• Each hypothesis may lead to formulate another
hypothesis
• Sensitize the researcher to work selectively and
have very realistic approach to the problem
• Offer the simple means for collecting evidences to
the verification
 Importance of hypothesis
• Provide direction to research and prevent the
review of irrelevant literature and helps collection
of useful data
• Helps in selecting pertinent fact
• Helps in drawing conclusions
• Indispensable research instrument, for they build
a bridge between the problem and the location of
empirical evidence that may solve the problem
• Provides the map that guides and expedites the
exploration of the phenomenon under
consideration
 Characteristics of good hypothesis
• Agrees with the observed facts
• Does not conflict with any law of nature known to be true
• Stated in the simplest possible form
• Permit the application of deductive reasoning
• Shows very clear verbalization
• Ensures that the verification methods are under control of
the investigator
• Guarantees that available tools and techniques will be
effectively used for the purpose of verification
• Take into account different types of controls for verification
• Ensures that the sample is really approachable
• Indicates clearly the role of different variables in the study
• Maintains a very apparent distinction with what is called
theory law, facts, assumption and pressures.
Reasoning
Inductive: uses
patterns to arrive
At a conclusion
(conjecture)
Deductive: uses facts,
rules, definitions or
properties to arrive
at conclusion
 Role of hypothesis
• Basis for any scientific investigation either in social
science and pure science
• Axel of any research process
• All the research activities are oriental towards the
verification of the hypothesis
• Significant in the formulation of theory, principles and
laws
• Tentative theory and after verification takes the shape
of final theory
-Emerges from a new hypothesis and this is then
subjected to verification, after the verification it
become a new theory in the field of studies
• This cycle process continues
 How Do Researchers come up with a Hypothesis?
• In many cases, researchers might draw a hypothesis
from a specific theory or build on previous research.
For example, prior research has shown that stress can
impact the immune system. So a researcher might for a
specific hypothesis that: "People with high-stress levels
will be more likely to contract a common cold after
being exposed to the virus than are people who have
low-stress levels."
• In other instances, researchers might look at commonly
held beliefs or folk wisdom. "Birds of a feather flock
together" is one example of folk wisdom that a
psychologist might try to investigate. The researcher
might pose a specific hypothesis that "People tend to
select romantic partners who are similar to them in
interests and educational level."
 Elements of a Good Hypothesis
• Is your hypothesis based on your research topic?
• Can your hypothesis be tested?
• Does your hypothesis include independent and
dependent variables?
• Before you come up with a specific hypothesis,
spend some time doing background research on
your topic.
• Once you have completed a literature review,
start thinking about potential questions you still
have.
• Pay attention to the discussion section in the
journal articles you read.
 How to form a Hypothesis?
• Identify an area of interest and develop a hypothesis to be tested.
• Hypothesis is not a guess, it is actually much more specific.
• It is an educated guess about the relationship between two or
more variables.
Ex: a researcher might be interested in the relationship between
study habits and test anxiety.
-Propose a hypothesis about how these two variables are related,
such as "Test anxiety decreases as a result of effective study
habits."
• In order to form a hypothesis, take these steps:
-Start by collecting as many observations about something as you
can.
-Evaluate these observations and look for possible causes of the
problem.
-Create a list of possible explanations that you might want to
explore.
-Think of ways that you could confirm or disprove each hypothesis
through experimentation (falsifiability).
 Falsifiability
• It is an important part of any valid hypothesis. In
order to test a claim scientifically, it must be
possible that the claim could also be proven false.
• It does not mean that the idea is false. It means
that if something was false, then it is possible to
demonstrate that it is false.
• One of the hallmarks of a pseudoscience is that it
makes claims that cannot be refuted or proven
false.
 Constructing a hypothesis
• A hypothesis is a testable explanation of an observed
occurrence in nature, or, more specifically, why
something you observed is occurring.
• Hypotheses relate directly to research questions, are
written in the present tense, and can be tested
through observation or experimentation.
• Hypothesis vs. prediction
-Hypothesis attempts to explain the mechanism
underlying a pattern
-Prediction states an expectation regarding the
results.
• Hypotheses provide powerful tools for structuring
research, generating specific predictions and
designing experiments.
Example:
• Observation: Brown-headed cowbird nestlings
refrain from ejecting host offspring from the
nest even though those offspring compete for
limited parental resources.
• Research question: Why do nestling cowbirds
tolerate the presence of host offspring in the
nest?
• Hypothesis: The presence of host offspring
causes parents to bring more food to the nest.
• Prediction: Cowbird nestlings will grow at a
faster rate in nests that contain host offspring.
 Choosing an appropriate statistical test
Goal ND NND BD
Describe one group Mean, SD Median, IQ range Proportion
Compare one group to a One-sample t- Wilcoxon test χ2 or binomial test
hypothetical value test
Compare two unpaired groups Unpaired t-test Mann-Whitney Fisher’s exact test;
test χ2 for large samples
Compare two paired groups Paired t-test Wilcoxon test McNemar’s test

Compare three or more One-way ANOVA Kruskal-Wallis test χ2

unmatched groups
Compare three or more Repeated- Friedman test Cochrane Q test
matched groups measures ANOVA
Quantify association between Pearson Spearman Contingency
two variables correlation correlation coefficients
Predict value from another Simple regression Non-parametric Simple logistic
measured variable regression regression
Predict value from several Multiple Multiple logistic
measured variables regression regression
 Hypothesis testing
• To answer a statistical question, the question
is translated into a hypothesis – a statement
which can be subjected to test
• Depending on the result of the test, the
hypothesis is accepted or rejected.
• The hypothesis tested is known as the Null
Hypothesis (H0).
• This must be in the form of a true/false
statement
• For every H0, there is an Alternative
Hypothesis (HA).
 Construction of hypothesis
• If there are two possible explanations always
accept the simplest
• It is simpler to propose that there is no difference
between two sets of results than to say that there
is a difference.
• The H0 has priority and is not rejected unless
there is strong statistical evidence against it.
• ‘Do not reject H0’means that there is insufficient
evidence against H0 and in favour of HA. Does not
prove that the HA may be true.
• In order to decide whether to accept or
reject the H0, the level of significance (α )
required of the result must be decided.
• α = 0.05 – significant (Confidence interval
95%, P = 1 – 0.95 = 0.05), most commonly
used.
• α = 0.01 – highly significant (CI 99%, P = 1 –
0.99 = 0.01), strong statistical evidence.
• α = 0.001 – very highly significant (CI 99.9%,
P = 1 – 0.999 = 0.001), rarely used.
 Procedure for hypothesis testing
1. Define H0 and HA
2. Choose a value for α.
3. Calculate the value of the test statistic.
4. Compare the calculated value with a table of the
critical values of the test statistic.
5. If the calculated value of the test statistic is less
than the critical value from the table, accept the H0.
6. Greater than or equal to the critical value from the
table, reject the H0 and accept the HA.
A small P-value can arise when any difference is
tiny but the sample sizes very large; conversely, a
large P-value can arise when the effect is large but
the sample size is small.
 Use of Normal Distribution
• Simplest test of significance
• Standard form N(0,1)
• Single observation is given, whose numerical value is Z.
• The NH is that Z has been picked random from N(0,1).
• CF is represented by the area under the FC; Total area = 1
• Probability of finding a member whose value is less than or equal
to Z when choosing one at random from population.
• Z = -1.96 (CF of values of Z less than -1.96 is 0.025; 2½%),-2.58
(0.005; ½% ), -3.29 (0.0005; 1/20%)
• Probability of obtaining a value of Z less or >1.96 is 0.05 or 5%;
implies that probability of obtaining a value of Z between -1.96
and +1.96 is 0.95.
E.g. Single observation is given, from a normal population whose
variance is known; test the hypothesis that the mean of this
population is equal to some specified value µ.
NH: an observation x is distributed according to N(7.25, 1.69). A
value x = 3.35 is then observed; is this observation consistent with
the hypothesis? (x- µ) / sd.
 Standard scores (Z-scores)
• Define the position of a score in relation to the mean using
the SD as a unit of measurement.
• Useful for comparing data points in different distributions
• Z = (score – mean) / SD
• No. of SDs by which the score departs from the sample
mean.
• Normalizes distributions, hence can be used to compare
data from different sets.
• Ex. Joe’s performance in test 1 and test 2 improve or decline.
1. Joe scored 71.2% in test 1 (mean = 65.4%, SD = 3.55)
Z = (71.2 - 65.4) / 3.55 = 1.63
2. Joe scored 66.8% in test 2 (mean = 61.1%, SD = 2.54)
Z = 66.8 – 61.1) / 2.54 = 2.24
Conclusion: Joe did better, compared with the rest of his
classmates, in test 2 than test 1, even though his mark was
lower in the second test.
 Student’s t-test (t-test)
• Difference between experimental and control tests
• Paired t-test: each data point in one group corresponds
to a matching data point in the other group
• Unpaired t-test: used whether or not the groups
contain matching data points
• Parametric test
• Continuous, interval data, compares a whole
population or samples randomly from a larger
population
• Normally distributed
• Sample size less than 30
• The sample size should not differ hugely between the
groups.
Examples
1. NH: The following 10 observations could
reasonably have been taken from a ND
whose mean was 0.6.
2. Difference between two means
NH: Both samples were drawn from the same
population i.e. had the same mean as well as
the same variance.
Possibility of making an error
Type I error: Falsely rejecting a true H0.
Type II error: Failure to reject a false H0.
Have stringent rejection limit (α = 0.05)
One- or two-tailed test:
One-tailed: used where there is some basis (e.g.
previous experimental observation) to predict the
direction of the difference (a new drug is more
effective than the existing one)
Two-tailed: there is no basis to assume that there
may be a significant difference between the
groups
Paired and unpaired t-test
ANOVA (F-test)
• More than two sample means.
• NH: There is no difference among means
• If F is significant, compare the paired means.
• LSD
• MRT
-Duncan’s MRT
-Schiff’s
-Newman Keuls
-Tukey’s
 Chi-square test

1. Goodness-of-fit: To determine whether observed sample frequencies

differ significantly from expected frequencies specified in the NH.
A set of data is expected to show the ratio of 9:3:3:1. A sample of 556
observations gave totals 315, 101, 108 and 32 respectively in the four
groups. Test whether this agrees with the given ratio.

2. Contingency tables (r x c): The Chi Square statistic is commonly used

for testing relationships between categorical variables. The NH of
the Chi-Square test is that no relationship exists on the categorical
variables in the population; they are independent.
Each member of population has been examined for two
characteristics (categories A and B); e.g. leaf colour (green, yellow)
and vigour (good, weak).
NH: A and B are independent
Regression analysis
• If there is a significant linear relationship between
the independent variable X and the dependent
variable Y, the slope will not equal zero.
• The null hypothesis states that the slope is equal to
zero, and the alternative hypothesis states that the
slope is not equal to zero.
Correlation
• Null hypothesis states that the population
correlation coefficient is equal to a hypothesized
value (usually 0 indicating no linear correlation),
against the alternative hypothesis that it is not
equal (or less than, or greater than) the
hypothesized value.
 Aim, Objectives, Rationale
• Aim: What is the precise target of this research?
• Specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, timely
• Longer version of the title.
-Why is research necessary?
-What is all about?
-How you are going to do it?
• Precision: does the aim give precise goal?
• Have only One aim. Do not use words ‘like’ ‘and’ ‘or’ ‘also’.
• Will it be clear when you have met your aim?
• Start with ‘To’ and then a verb such as investigate, establish
etc.
• Clarity: Is the aim clear to everyone?
• Must be research focused.
 Objectives
• What steps do I need to achieve the aim?
• Should be in a logical sequence
• Each objective must contribute to aim and
research-oriented
• Should not include methodology
• Practical
• 2-4 achievable
• First one or two should relate to the secondary
research.
• Last one or two should be about analysis and
conclusive to recommend for action
 Rationale
• Why spend time doing this research?
• Identify a problem or a need
• How your research can address the problem?
• Information decision makers
• Evaluate performance
• Advance human knowledge
• To investigate/understand a problem or theory
• Who will be benefited and how?
• Use references to support your rationale (literature)
 Research objectives
• A critical component of a successful research
engagement is a set of clearly defined and
meaningful objectives.
• Having well-defined objectives narrows and
focuses the research and ensures that the findings
are relevant to decision-makers.
• The research objectives drive all aspects of the
methodology, including instrument design, data
collection, analysis, and ultimately the
recommendations.
Six important guidelines that should be observed
when developing research objectives:
1. Presented briefly and concisely
2. Presented in logical sequence
3. Realistic (e.g., achieved within the expected
timeframe, within the available resources)
4. Phrased in operational terms (in a way that
brings the organization closer to its business
objectives)
5. Use action verbs that are specific enough to be
evaluated or measured (e.g., assess, determine,
compare, verify, calculate, describe)
6. Static - once the study work begins (i.e.,
objectives should not be moving targets)
 Objectives are usually headed by infinitive
verbs such as:
• To identify.
• To establish.
• To describe.
• To determine.
• To estimate.
• To develop.
• To compare.
• To analyse.
 Sample objectives
General: To evaluate if home-based care (CHBC) projects in
Zimbabwe provide adequate, affordable and sustainable
cre of good quality to people with HIV/AIDS and to identify
in which these services can be improved.
Specific:
• To identify the full range of economic, psychosocial,
health/nursing care and other needs of patients and their
families affected by AIDS
• To determine the extent to which formal and informal
support systems address their needs from the view point of
service providers as well as patients
• To determine the economic costs of CHBC to the patient
and family as well as to the formal CHBC programme
themselves.
• To relate the calculated costs to the quality of care provided
to the patient by the family and to the family/patient by the
CHBC programme.
Research statement: “Effectiveness of planned
teaching or knowledge of staff nurses working in
psychiatric unit regarding Physical Restraints for
psychiatric patient in selected hospital of Vidarbha
Region”.
General objective: To assess the knowledge of staff
nurses working in psychiatric unit regarding physical
restraint
Specific objectives:
• To assess the knowledge regarding Physical
Restraints among nurses working in psychiatric unit
• To evaluate the effect of planned teaching on
physical restraints among nurses
• To associate the knowledge with selected
demographic variables
 Hypothesis Checklist
• Does your hypothesis focus on something that you
can actually test?
• Does your hypothesis include both an independent
and dependent variable?
• Can you manipulate the variables?
• Can your hypothesis be tested without violating
ethical standards?
 Research objectives
• While your problem formulation serves to describe
the aim of your thesis, the objectives provide an
accurate description of the specific actions you will
take in order to reach this aim. As with the problem
formulation, the overall objective should be framed
in a single sentence.
• Some examples of objectives market research:
• Brand awareness, brand image, consumer
perception, consumer attitudes, buyer behavior,
product satisfaction, consumer experience (good
and bad), and intent to purchase behavior.
• Objectives should be tailored to each specific
project.
• There are three types of objectives in a
marketing research project:
-Exploratory or formulative research.
-Descriptive research.
-Causal research (explanatory research)
• Characteristics of the research objectives:
-Clear. Clarity is the main focus of the research
objectives. ...
-Complete. Each phrase in the research objectives
should have a sense of completeness. ...
-Specific. ...
-Identify the main variables of the study. ...
-Identify the direction of the relationship.
 The Role of Operational Definitions
• In the previous example, study habits and test anxiety
are the two variables in this imaginary study.
A variable is a factor or element that can be changed
and manipulated in ways that are observable and
measurable.
• However, the researcher must also define exactly what
each variable is using what is known as operational
definitions which explain how the variable will be
manipulated and measured in the study.
• In the previous example, a researcher might
operationally define the variable "test anxiety" as the
results of a self-report measure of anxiety experienced
during an exam. The variable "study habits" might be
defined by the amount of studying that actually occurs
as measured by time.
• These precise descriptions of each variable are important
because many things can be measured in a number of
different ways.
• One of the basic principles of any type of scientific research is
that the results must be replicable.
• By clearly detailing the specifics of how the variables were
measured and manipulated, other researchers can better
understand the results and repeat the study if needed.
• Some variables are more difficult than others to define. How
would you operationally define a variable such as aggression?
• For obvious ethical reasons, researchers cannot create a
situation in which a person behaves aggressively toward
others.
• In order to measure this variable, the researcher must devise
a measurement that assesses aggressive behavior without
harming other people.
• In this situation, the researcher might utilize a simulated task
to measure aggressiveness.
Examples
• A hypothesis often follows a basic format of "If {this happens}
then {this will happen}." One way to structure your
hypothesis is to describe what will happen to the dependent
variable if you make changes to the independent variable.
The basic format might be:
• "If {these changes are made to a certain independent
variable}, then we will observe {a change in a specific
dependent variable}."
A few examples:
• "Students who eat breakfast will perform better on a math
exam than students who do not eat breakfast."
• "Students who experience test anxiety prior to an English
exam will get higher scores than students who do not
experience test anxiety."​
• "Motorists who talk on the phone while driving will be more
likely to make errors on a driving course than those who do
not talk on the phone."
• 1. Choosing the topic too broadly. This is the most common mistake. For
example, a research title of “An analysis of leadership practices” can be
classified as too broad because the title fails to answer the following
questions:
• a) Which aspects of leadership practices? Leadership has many aspects
such as employee motivation, ethical behaviour, strategic planning,
change management etc. An attempt to cover all of these aspects of
organizational leadership within a single research will result in a poor
work.
• b) An analysis of leadership practices in which country? Leadership
practices tend to be different in various countries due to cross-cultural
differences, legislations and a range of other region-specific factors.
Therefore, a study of leadership practices needs to be country-specific.
• c) Analysis of leadership practices in which company or industry? Similar to
the point above, analysis of leadership practices needs to take into
account industry-specific and company-specific differences, and there is
no way to conduct a leadership research that relates to all industries and
organizations in an equal manner.
• Accordingly, “A study into the impacts of ethical behaviour of a leader on
the level of employee motivation in US healthcare sector” would be a
more appropriate title than simply “An analysis of leadership practices”.
• 2. Setting an unrealistic aim. Formulation of a
research aim that involves in-depth interviews
with Apple strategic level management by an
undergraduate level student can be specified as a
bit over-ambitious. This is because securing an
interview with Apple CEO Tim Cook or members
of Apple management board might not be easy.
This is an extreme example, but you got the idea.
Instead, you may aim to interview the manager of
your local Apple store and adopt a more feasible
strategy to get your dissertation completed.
•
• 3. Choosing research methods incompatible with the timeframe available. Conducting interviews
with 20 sample group members and collecting primary data through 2 focus groups when only
three months left until submission of your dissertation can be very difficult, if not impossible.
Accordingly, timeframe available need to be taken into account when formulating research aims
and objectives and selecting specific research methods.
• Moreover, research objectives need to be formulated according to SMART objectives, where the
abbreviation stands for specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and timely.
• Ineffective (incomplete) research objectives vs SMART research objectives
• Study employee motivation of Coca-Cola
• To study the impacts of management practices on the levels of employee motivation at Coca-Cola
US by December 5, 2018
• Analyze consumer behaviour in catering industry
• Analyzing changes in consumer behaviour in catering industry in the 21st century in the UK by
March 1, 2019
• Recommend Toyota Motor Corporation management on new market entry strategy
•
• Formulating recommendations to Toyota Motor Corporation management on the choice of
appropriate strategy to enter Vietnam market by June 9, 2018
• Analyze the impact of social media marketing on business
• Assessing impacts of integration of social media into marketing strategy on the level of brand
awareness by March 30, 2017
• Finding out about time management principles used by Accenture managers
• Identifying main time-management strategies used by managers of Accenture France by December
1, 2017
 Difference Between Hypothesis and Research Question
Hypothesis Research Question
Definition:
• Is a tentative prediction about the • Is the question a research study
relationship between two or more variables. sets to answer.
Nature
• Predictive in nature. • Is inquisitive in nature.
Existing Research
• Can be used if there is significant knowledge • Can be used if there is little
or previous research on this subject. previous research on the subject.
Quantitative vs Qualitative
• Mainly used in experimental quantitative • Can be used in both quantitative
studies. and qualitative studies.
Outcomes
• Hypothesis doesn’t allow a wide range of • Allows a wide range of
outcomes. outcomes.
• Collecting Data on Your Hypothesis
• Once a researcher has formed a testable hypothesis, the next step
is to select a research design and start collecting data. The research
method a researcher chooses depends largely on exactly what they
are studying. There are two basic types of research methods—
descriptive research and experimental research.
• Descriptive Research Methods
• Descriptive research such as case studies, naturalistic
observations, and surveys are often used when it would be
impossible or difficult to conduct an experiment. These methods
are best used to describe different aspects of a behavior or
psychological phenomenon. Once a researcher has collected data
using descriptive methods, a correlational study can then be used
to look at how the variables are related. This type of research
method might be used to investigate a hypothesis that is difficult to
test experimentally.
• Experimental Research Methods
• Experimental methods are used to demonstrate
causal relationships between variables. In an
experiment, the researcher systematically
manipulates a variable of interest (known as the
independent variable) and measures the effect
on another variable (known as the dependent
variable). Unlike correlational studies, which can
only be used to determine if there is a
relationship between two variables, experimental
methods can be used to determine the actual
nature of the relationship. That is to say that if
changes in one variable actually cause another to
change.
• A Word From Verywell
• The hypothesis is a critical part of any scientific exploration.
It represents what researchers expect to find in a study or
experiment. In some cases, the original hypothesis will be
supported and the researchers will find evidence
supporting their expectations about the nature of the
relationship between different variables. In other
situations, the results of the study might fail to support the
original hypothesis.
• Even in situations where the hypothesis is unsupported by
the research, this does not mean that the research is
without value. Not only does such research help us better
understand how different aspects of the natural world
relate to one another, but it also helps us develop new
hypotheses that can then be tested in future research.
• The Scientific Method and Psychology Research
• By Kendra Cherry
• Updated November 15, 2018
• What Is the Scientific Method?
• What is the scientific method and how is it used in psychology? The scientific
method is essentially a step-by-step process that researchers can follow to
determine if there is some type of relationships between two or more variables.
• Psychologists and other social scientists regularly propose explanations for human
behavior. On a more informal level, people make judgments about the
intentions, motivations, and actions of others on a daily basis.
• While the everyday judgments we make about human behavior are subjective and
anecdotal, researchers use the scientific method to study psychology in
an objective and systematic way. The results of these studies are often reported in
popular media, which leads many to wonder just how or why researchers arrived
at the conclusions they did.
• In order to truly understand how psychologists and other researchers reach these
conclusions, you need to know more about the research process that is used to
study psychology and the basic steps that are utilized when conducting any type of
psychological research. By knowing the steps of the scientific method, you can
better understand the process researchers go through to arrive at conclusions
about human behavior.
• Reasons to Use the Steps of the Scientific Method
• The goals of psychological studies are to describe,
explain, predict and perhaps influence mental
processes or behaviors. In order to do this,
psychologists utilize the scientific method to conduct
psychological research. The scientific method is a set of
principles and procedures that are used by researchers
to develop questions, collect data, and reach
conclusions.
• What are the goals of scientific research in psychology?
Researchers seek not only to describe behaviors and
explain why these behaviors occur; they also strive to
create research that can be used to predict and even
change human behavior.
• The Steps of the Scientific Method
• While research studies can vary, these are the basic steps that
psychologists and scientists use when investigating human behavior.
• Step 1. Make An Observation
• Before a researcher can begin, they must choose a topic to study.
Once an area of interest has been chosen, the researchers must
then conduct a thorough review of the existing literature on the
subject. This review will provide valuable information about what
has already been learned about the topic and what questions
remain to be answered.
• A literature review might involve looking at a considerable amount
of written material from both books and academic journals dating
back decades. The relevant information collected by the researcher
will be presented in the introduction section of the final published
study results. This background material will also help the researcher
with the first major step in conducting a psychology study —
formulating a hypothesis.
• Step 2. Ask A Question
• Once a researcher has observed something and gained
some background information on the topic, the next step is
to ask a question. The researcher will form a hypothesis,
which is an educated guess about the relationship between
two or more variables
• For example, a researcher might ask a question about the
relationship between sleep and academic performance. Do
students who get more sleep perform better on tests at
school?
• In order to formulate a good hypothesis, it is important to
think about different questions you might have about a
particular topic. You should also consider how you could
investigate the causes. Falsifiability is an important part of
any valid hypothesis. In other words, if a hypothesis was
false, there needs to be a way for scientists to demonstrate
that it is false
• tep 3. Test Your Hypothesis and Collect Data
• Once you have a solid hypothesis, the next step of the scientific method is to put this hunch to the
test by collecting data. The exact methods used to investigate a hypothesis depend on exactly what
is being studied. There are two basic forms of research that a psychologist might utilize –
descriptive research or experimental research.
• Descriptive research is typically used when it would be difficult or even impossible to manipulate
the variables in question. Examples of descriptive research include case studies, naturalistic
observation, and correlation studies. Phone surveys that are often used by marketers are one
example of descriptive research.
• Correlational studies are quite common in psychology research. While they do not allow
researchers to determine cause-and-effect, they do make it possible to spot relationships between
different variables and to measure the strength of those relationships.
• Experimental research is used to explore cause-and-effect relationships between two or more
variables. This type of research involves systematically manipulating an independent variable and
then measuring the effect that it has on a defined dependent variable. One of the major
advantages of this method is that it allows researchers to actually determine if changes in one
variable actually cause changes in another.
• While psychology experiments are often quite complex, a simple experimentis fairly basic but does
allow researchers to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. Most simple
experiments use a control group (those who do not receive a treatment) and an experimental
group(those who do receive the treatment).
• Step 4. Examine the Results and Draw Conclusions
• Once a researcher has designed the study and collected the data, it is time to examine this
information and draw conclusions about what has been found. Using statistics, researchers can
summarize the data, analyze the results, and draw conclusions based on this evidence.
• So how does a researcher decide what the results of a study mean? Not only can statistical analysis
support (or refute) the researcher’s hypothesis; it can also be used to determine if the findings are
statistically significant.
• When results are said to be statistically significant, it means that it is unlikely that these results are
due to chance.
• Based on these observations, researchers must then determine what the results mean. In some
cases, an experiment will support a hypothesis, but in other cases, it will fail to support the
hypothesis.
• So what happens if the results of a psychology experiment do not support the researcher's
hypothesis? Does this mean that the study was worthless? Just because the findings fail to support
the hypothesis does not mean that the research is not useful or informative. In fact, such research
plays an important role in helping scientists develop new questions and hypotheses to explore in
the future.
• After conclusions have been drawn, the next step is to share the results with the rest of the
scientific community. This is an important part of the process because it contributes to the overall
knowledge base and can help other scientists find new research avenues to explore.
•
• Step 5. Report the Results
• The final step in a psychology study is to report the findings. This is often done by
writing up a description of the study and publishing the article in an academic or
professional journal. The results of psychological studies can be seen in peer-
reviewed journals such as Psychological Bulletin, the Journal of Social
Psychology, Developmental Psychology, and many others.
• The structure of a journal article follows a specified format that has been outlined
by the American Psychological Association (APA). In these articles, researchers:
• Provide a brief history and background on previous research,
• Present their hypothesis,
• Identify who participated in the study and how they were selected,
• Provide operational definitions for each variable,
• Describe the measures and procedures that were used to collect data,
• Explain how the information collected was analyzed, and
• Discuss what the results mean.
• Why is such a detailed record of a psychological study so important? By clearly
explaining the steps and procedures used throughout the study, other researchers
can then replicate the results. The editorial process employed by academic and
professional journals ensures that each article that is submitted undergoes a
thorough peer review, which helps ensure that the study is scientifically sound.
• Once published, the study becomes another piece of the existing puzzle of our
knowledge base on that topic.
• How the Experimental Method Works in
Psychology
• By Kendra Cherry
• Updated November 19, 2018
• How exactly do researchers investigate the
human mind and behavior? While there are a
number of different research techniques, the
experimental method allows researchers to look
at cause-and-effect relationships.
• In the experimental method, researchers identify
and define key variables, formulate a hypothesis,
manipulate the variables and collect data on the
results. Extraneous variables are carefully
controlled to minimize a potential impact on the
outcome of the experiment.
• A Closer Look at the Experimental Method in Psychology
• The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to
determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another
variable. This method relies on controlled methods, random
assignment and the manipulation of variables to test a hypothesis.
• Types of Experiments
• There are a few different types of experiments that researchers
might choose to use. The type of experiment chosen might depend
on a variety of factors including the participants, the hypothesis and
the resources available to the researchers.
• 1. Lab Experiments
• Lab experiments are very common in psychology because they
allow experimenters more control over the variables. These
experiments can also be easier for other researchers to replicate.
The problem, of course, is that what takes place in a lab is not
always identical to what takes place in the real world.
• 2. Field Experiments
• Sometimes researchers might opt to conduct
their experiments in the field. For example, let's
imagine that a social psychologist is interested in
researching prosocial behavior. The experimenter
might have a person pretend to faint and observe
to see how long it takes onlookers to respond.
This type of experiment can be a great way to see
behavior in action in realistic settings. However, it
makes it more difficult for the researchers to
control the variables and can introduce
confounding variables that might influence the
results.
• 3. Quasi-Experiments
• While lab and field experiments represent what are known as true
experiments, researchers can also utilize a third type known as a
quasi-experiment. These are often referred to as natural
experiments because the researchers do not have true control over
the independent variable. Instead, the treatment level is
determined by the natural conditions of the situation. A researcher
looking at personality differences and birth order, for example, is
not able to manipulate the independent variable in the situation.
Treatment levels cannot be randomly assigned because the
participants naturally fall into pre-existing groups based on their
birth order in their families.
• So why would a researcher choose to use a quasi-experiment? This
is a good choice in situations where scientists and interested in
studying phenomena in natural, real-world settings. It is also a good
choice in situations where researchers cannot ethically manipulate
the independent variable in question.
• Key Terms to Know
• In order to understand how the experimental method works, there are
some key terms you should first understand.
• The independent variable is the treatment that the experimenter
manipulates. This variable is assumed to cause some type of effect on
another variable. If a researcher was investigating how sleep influences
test scores, the amount of sleep an individual gets would be the
independent variable.
• The dependent variable is the effect that the experimenter is measuring.
In our previous example, the test scores would be the dependent variable.
• Operational definitions are necessary in order to perform an experiment.
When we say something is an independent variable or dependent
variable, we need to have a very clear and specific definition of the
meaning and scope of that variable.
• A hypothesis is a tentative statement or guesses about the possible
relationship between two or more variables. In our earlier example, the
researcher might hypothesize that people who get more sleep will
perform better on a math test the next day. The purpose of the
experiment is then to either support or fail to support this hypothesis.
• The Experimental Process
• Psychologists, like other scientists, utilize the scientific
method when conducting an experiment. The scientific
method is a set of procedures and principles that guide
how scientists develop research questions, collect data and
come to conclusions.
• The four basic steps of the process are:
• Forming a Hypothesis
• Designing a Study and Collecting Data
• Analyzing the Data and Reaching Conclusions
• Sharing the Findings
• Most psychology students will be expected to use the
experimental method at some point. If you want to take a
closer look at the process, be sure to check out a step-by-
step breakdown of how to conduct a psychology
experiment for more information.
• The Experimental Group in Psychology Experiments
• By Kendra Cherry
• Updated November 18, 2018
• In a psychology experiment, the experimental group
(or experimental condition) refers to the group of
participants who are exposed to the independent
variable. These participants receive or are exposed to
the treatment variable. The data that is collected is
then compared to the data from the control group,
which did not receive the experimental treatment.
• By doing this, researchers are able to see if the
independent variable had any impact on the behavior
of the participants. Comparing the experimental group
to the control group allows researchers to see how
much of an impact the variables had on the
participants.
• A Closer Look at Experimental Groups
• Imagine that you want to do an experiment to determine if listening to
music while working out can lead to greater weight loss. After getting
together a group of participants, you randomly assign them to one of
three groups. One group listens to upbeat music while working out, one
group listens to relaxing music, and the third group listens to no music at
all. All of the participants work out for the same amount of time and the
same number of days each week.
• In this experiment, the group of participants listening to no music while
working out is the control group. They serve as a baseline with which to
compare the performance of the other two groups. The other two groups
in the experiment are the experimental groups. They each receive some
level of the independent variable, which in this case is listening to music
while working out.
• In this experiment, you find that the participants who listened to upbeat
music experienced the greatest weight loss result, largely because those
who listened to this type of music exercised with greater intensity than
those in the other two groups. By comparing the results from your
experimental groups with the results of the control group, you can more
clearly see the impact of the independent variable.
• Some Things to Know
• When it comes to using experimental groups in a psychology experiment,
there are a few important things to know:
• In order to determine the impact of an independent variable, it is
important to have at least two different treatment conditions. This
usually involves using a control group that receives no treatment against
an experimental group that receives the treatment. However, there can
also be a number of different experimental groups in the same
experiment.
• Care must be taken when assigning participants to groups. So how do
researchers determine who is in the control group and who is in the
experimental group? In an ideal situation, the researchers would use
random assignment to place participants in groups. In random
assignment, each individual stands an equal shot at being assigned to
either group. Participants might be randomly assigned using methods such
as a coin flip or a number draw. By using random assignment, researchers
can help ensure that the groups are not unfairly stacked with people who
share characteristics that might unfairly skew the results.
• Variables must be well-defined. Before you begin varying things in an
experiment, you need to have very clear operational definitions in place.
These definitions clearly explain what your variables are, including what
you are varying and what you are measuring.
• A Word From Verywell
• Experiments play an important role in the
research process and allow psychologists to
investigate cause and effect relationships
between different variables. Have one or more
experimental groups allows researchers to vary
different levels of an experimental variable (or
variables) and then compare the effects of these
changes against a control group. The goal of this
experimental manipulation is to gain a better
understanding of the different factors that may
have an impact on how people think, feel, and
act.
 Research hypothesis: H1
• Employees’ job satisfaction is positively
related to their commitment to the
organization
• Leaders who communicate with respect have
higher quality relationship with the employees
• People who work in high-stress organization
are more likely to think about quitting than
those who were in low-stress organization
 Continuous Improvement Cycle Diagram
PDCA is an iterative four-step management method used in business for the control and
continuous improvement of processes and products. It is also known as the Deming
circle/cycle/wheel, the Shewhart cycle, the control circle/cycle, or plan–do–study–act. Another
version of this PDCA cycle is OPDCA.
• Guides the research
• Direct thought process towards the solution of the
research problem
• Helps to collect the right kinds of data needed for the
investigation
• To locate information needed to resolve the research
problem.
• Determine the most appropriate research design and
technique of data analysis
• Tells what to expect from the results of the research
study.
• Serves as a framework for drawing conclusions of a
research study
• Without hypothesis research would be aimless.
 What is a Research Question?
• Question(s) a research study sets to answer.
• The research methodologies, tools used to collect
data, etc. all depend on the RQ.
• RQs are often used in qualitative research to
answer open-ended questions.
• Can be used instead of hypotheses when there is
little previous research on the subject.
• RQ should be clear and concise. It should include
the variables, population and the topic being
studied.
 Research hypothesis
Statement of expectation or prediction that will be tested by
research
Before formulating RH, read the topic of interest, collect
sufficient information, narrow or limit it and express it as a RQ in
one sentence
Formulation of hypothesis:
1. Read the topic to familiarize, make certain that topic is
researchable, sufficient published material is available
2. RH is more than just a topic. Has two elements – related to
each other. Hypothesis – ‘thesis’ what you propose to ‘prove’ by
research; conclusion, a theory useful or applicable beyond
research itself.
3. Avoid judgemental words in hypothesis; try to be objective;
avoid personal opinion
4. The issue or question that cannot be answered exclusively;
you should have some level of familiarity with the discipline
relevant to topic.
 How is a Hypothesis used in the Scientific Method?
• A hypothesis represents what the researchers think
will happen in an experiment.
• The scientific method involves the following steps:
1. Forming a question
2. Performing background research
3. Creating a hypothesis
4. Designing an experiment
5. Collecting data
6. Analyzing the results
7. Drawing conclusions
8. Communicating the results
• The hypothesis predict the relationship between two or
more variables
• Most of the time, the hypothesis begins with a
question which is then explored through background
research.
• In a study exploring the effects of a particular drug, the
hypothesis might be that researchers expect the drug
to have some type of effect on the symptoms of a
specific illness.
• In psychology, the hypothesis might focus on how a
certain aspect of the environment might influence a
particular behavior.
• Unless the study is exploratory in nature, your
hypothesis should always explain what you expect to
happen during the course of your research.
• A hypothesis need not be correct. While the
hypothesis predicts what the researchers expect to
see, the goal of the research is to determine
whether this guess is right or wrong.
• When conducting an experiment, researchers might
explore a number of factors to determine which
ones might contribute to the ultimate outcome.
• In many cases, researchers may find that the results
of an experiment do not support the original
hypothesis. When writing up these results, the
researchers might suggest other options that should
be explored in future studies.
• Creating good objectives can help organizations
realize their business goals.
For example, a nonprofit community medical
center needed to inform a communications
campaign that will, in the end, expand their donor
base and increase the consistency and dollar
value of donations from existing donors. With
these goals in mind, the presentation below
explores three potential research objectives by
demonstrating the following:
• What the research must achieve
• Example of a weak objective, and why’s it’s weak
• Example of a stronger objective
• While your problem formulation serves to describe the
aim of your thesis, the objectives provide an accurate
description of the specific actions you will take in order
to reach this aim. As with the problem formulation, the
overall objective should be framed in a single sentence.
• Once again, take a look at the problem formulation: “Is
the level of knowledge on recommended nutritional
practices related to the nutritional status of pregnant
women attending antenatal care in Northern Uganda?”
• The corresponding overall objective should be written
as an infinitive sentence e.g.:
“To analyse the association between nutritional
knowledge and the nutritional status of pregnant
women attending antenatal care (ANC) in Northern
Uganda.
• The overall objective states exactly how you intend to address your
problem: “I want to find the answer to problem A, by completing
action B”. You then have to explain or detail action B through a set
of specific objectives (usually two to four), e.g.:
1. To assess the knowledge level among ANC attendees on the
recommended nutritional practices during pregnancy
2. To assess the nutritional status of pregnant women attending ANC
3. To analyse the statistical association between nutritional
knowledge level and nutritional status in pregnant women
attending ANC
• Each specific objective consists of one infinitive sentence and
should be phrased so that makes it possible to draw a conclusion
from within the scope of the thesis.
• The more precisely you formulate your specific objectives, the
simpler it will be to define the type of study and which method(s)
you will use in your further research.
• You can refine your specific objective by clearly stating if your
given action is to understand, analyse or create – in tune with the
hierarchy of learning objectives and the key to the assessment of
knowledge content.