English 10

Introduction to
Linguistics
 Competencies:
 
1. Demonstrate familiarity with the theories of
language and language learning and their influence
on language teaching.
2. Revisit the knowledge of linguistic theories and
concepts and apply it to the teaching of
communication skills – listening, speaking, reading,
writing, and grammar.
3. Show understanding of how language rules are
used in real conversations.
 Introduction to linguistics
What do linguists study?

“Mind”

- They study the unconscious

knowledge that speakers have about
their language.
Examples:

an historical novel

*an history book

Linguists figure out the
unconscious “rules” that
people know about their
language

e.g., that h can be

pronounced when it begins
an unstressed syllable
 Introduction to linguistics
How do linguists study it?

“Indirectly”

- Linguists have to study

something concrete that is
associated with these mental
rules.
 Introduction to linguistics
Examples:

1. Historical linguists – study language

change.
2. Neurolinguists – study language
pathology.
3. Dialectologists – study regional and
social variations .
4. Experimental phoneticians - study
 Introduction to linguistics

Theoretical Linguists investigate

speakers judgement about sentences:
1. Is utterance X an acceptable
sentence in your country?
2. Does the utterance X have the same
meaning as utterance Y?
3. In utterance X, can word A refer to
word B?
 • Speaker’s judgements of acceptability,
sameness of meaning, references, and so forth.
Observabl
Observabl
e
e Data
Data

• Makes hypotheses about internal structure of

Linguis speaker’s psychological linguistic system
ts

• English has two kinds of pronouns, whose

antecedents appear in different positions.
Theory
 Introduction to linguistics
 What is linguistics?
 the scientific study of language
 encompasses the description of languages,
the study of their origin, and the analysis of
how children acquire language and how
people learn languages other than their own
 is also concerned with relationships
between languages and with the ways
languages change
 VIEWS ABOUT LANGUAGE
1. Structuralists

2. Transformationalists/Cognitivists

3. Functionalists

4. Interactionists
 VIEWS ABOUT LANGUAGE
1. Structuralists

- Language is describe in terms of observable and verifiable data as it is being used.

- Structure, regularities and patterns or rules.

VIEWS ABOUT LANGUAGE
1. Structuralists

A. Language is primarily vocal.

B. Language is a system of systems.

C.Language is arbitrary.

D. Language is a means of communication.

1. Language is primarily vocal.

Language is speech, primarily made up of vocal sounds produced by the

speech apparatus in the human body.
2. Language is a system of systems.

Language is not a disorganized or a chaotic combination of sounds. Sounds are arranged

in certain fixed or established, systematic order to form meaningful units or words.
Language is a system of structurally related elements
or ‘building blocks’ for the encoding of meaning, the
elements being phonemes (sounds), morphemes
(words), tagmemes (phrases and sentences/clauses).
3. Language is arbitrary.

There is no inherent relation between the words of a language and their

meanings or the ideas conveyed by them.
4.Language is a means of communication.

Language is an important means of communicating between humans of their ideas, beliefs, or

feelings. Language gives shape to people’s thoughts, as well as guides and controls their activity.
1. Language is a systematic system – possibly a
generative – system.
2. Language is a set of arbitrary symbols.
3. Those symbols are primarily vocal, but may
also be visual.
4. The symbols have conventionalized meanings
to which they refer.
5. Language operates in a speech community
or culture.
6. Language is acquired by all people in much
the same way – language and language
learning both have universal characteristics.
 VIEWS ABOUT LANGUAGE
2. Transformationalists/ Cognitivists

- is a system of knowledge made manifest in linguistic forms but innate and, in its most abstract form, universal.
- Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
- is creative
- Mental Phenomenon
- Universal
 VIEWS ABOUT LANGUAGE
3. Functionalists

- is a dynamic system which we exchange information.

- express emotions, persuading people, asking and giving information, making people do things for others.

- emphasizes the meaning and functions rather than structure and grammar
 VIEWS ABOUT LANGUAGE
4. Interactionists

- is a vehicle for establishing

interpersonal relations

- perform social transactions between

individuals.

- creating and maintaining social

relations through conversations.

- Teaching content is organized by

patterns of exchange and interaction.
Language

is a system of arbitrary, vocal

symbols through which
members of a group
communicate
 Functions of Language

1. Instrumental language –
“I want” or “I need”
- Used to satisfy desires or needs
- Often takes the form of a request

2. Regulatory Language –
“Do this” or “Get out of here” or
“Stop it!”
- Used for controlling others.
3. Interactional Language –
“Will you play with me?” or “Let’s go for a walk
together.”
-Used for establishing relationships, defining them,
and maintaining them.
-Used for participating social behavior.

4. Personal language –
“I’m going to be a doctor.”, “I think…”
- Used for expressing individuality, to give personal
opinions and feelings.
5. Imaginative language –
“Let’s pretend” or “Once upon a time..”
-Used to create a world of one’s own

6. Heuristic language –
“Why?” “What’s that for?” or “Why is the sky
blue?”
-Used for exploring the world, for finding things out.

7. Informative language –
“I’ve got something to tell you.”
-used for conveying information.
Acquisition of
Language
 First Language Acquisition

u a g e
Lang i o n
i si t
Acqu
Is the study of how human
beings acquire a grammar: a set of
semantic, syntactic, morphological
and phonological categories and
rules that underlie their ability to
speak and understand the language
to which they are exposed to
 Patterns in L1 Development

F i rst  The earliest vocalizations

Before
o rd s - Involuntary crying (when they
W feel
hungry or uncomfortable)
Cooing and gurgling –
showing
satisfaction or happiness

“Babbling”
Babies use sounds to reflect the
characteristics of the different language
they are learning.
Cooing

 Few weeks: cooing and gurgling, playing with

sounds. Their abilities are constrained by
physiological limitations
 they seem to be discovering phonemes at this
point.
 Producing sequences of vowel-like sounds- high
vowels [i] and [u].
 4 months- sounds similar to velar consonants [k]
& [g]
 5 months: distinguish between [a] and [i] and
the syllables [ba] and [ga], so their perception
skills are good.
 Patterns in L1 Development
Babbling
 the production of sound at will by conscious efforts

• Begins at the end of the third month

• Produces a limited number of sounds
• Applies the sound in his/her play
a t io n
p li c
Redu
 produces syllables consisting of consonants
and vowels

• Creates recognizable jargons such as

Mamam, dodo,dada mama etc.
 Babbling

 Different vowel and consonants ba-ba-ba and ga-

ga-ga
 9-10 months intonation patterns and combination
of ba-ba-ba-da-da
 Nasal sounds also appear ma-ma-ma
 10-11-- use of vocalization to express emotions
 Late stage- complex syllable combination (ma-da-
ga-ba)
 Even deaf children babble
 The most common cross-linguistic sounds and
patterns babbled the most, but later on they
babble less common sounds
 Patterns in L1 Development

Wo rd s–
First
 Around 12 months (“one-word” stage) –
Holophrastic stage

Babies begin to produce one or two recognizable words (esp.

content word); producing single-word sentences.

 The one-word utterance may be

used in context which would
account to different grammatical
construction in the adult language.
E.g.
Teddy may mean “ Where is my teddy”, Here is my
Teddy, Hello teddy or I want my Teddy
 By the
age of
2 (“two
-word”
stage):
at least 50 different words

2) “telegraphic”(Brown and Fraser)

sentences (no function words and
grammatical morphemes)
e.g., “Mommy juice”, “baby fall down”

3) reflecting the order of the language

e.g., “kiss baby”, “baby kiss”

4) creatively combining words

e.g., “more outside”, “all gone cookie
 ra nc e s
rd u tt e
wo
Two
 Most are content words or
open class
 Closed class are somehow
absent
 Only small group of
meanings (semantic relations)
is expressed in the children’s
language at the age of 2
(Brown)
 Before children use a two word
utterance they have understanding
of the word order

 Children are able to exploit

knowledge gained from listening
to adult speech to guide the
acquisition of grammatical words

Two word utterances

Agent + action ( Mara hit)
Action + object (hit ball)
Agent +action + object (Mara hit ball)
 Prelinguistic Stages
Stage Typical description
age
cooing 3-5 Vowel-like sounds
months
babbling 6-10 Repetitive CV patterns
months
One-word stage 12-18 Single open-class words or
months word stems
Two-word stage 18-20 "mini-sentences" with
months simple semantic relations
Telegraphic stage 24-30 sentence structures of lexical
months words no functional or
grammatical morphemes
Later multiword stage 30+ Grammatical or functional
months structures emerge
L1 Developmental Sequences

 Acquisition
of
Grammatical morphemes

 Acquisition of Negation
(to deny, reject, disagree
with, and refuse
something)

 Acquisition of Questions
 Acquisition o
f
Grammatica
l
morphemes
Roger Brown’s study (1973):

 approximate order of acquiring grammatical morphemes

Present progressive –ing (running)

Plural –s (books)
Irregular past forms (went)
Possessive -’s (daddy’s hat)
Copula (am/is/are)
Articles (a/an/the)
Regular past –ed (walked)
Third person singular simple present –s (he runs)
Auxiliary ‘be’ (He is coming)
 Acquisition o
f
Grammatica
l
morphemes

e.g., “wug test” –

1) Here is a wug. Now there are two of them.
There are two ______.

2) John knows how to nod. Yesterday he did the

same thing. Yesterday, he_______.
 Through the tests, children demonstrate that they know the
rules for the formation of plural and simple past in
English.
 By generalizing these patterns to words they have never
heard before, they show that their language is not just a list
of memorized word pairs such as ‘book/books’ and
‘nod/nodded’.
 Acquisition
of Negatio
n
Lois Bloom’s study (1991) – four stages

Stage 1: ‘no’ – e.g., “No go”. “No cookie.”

Stage 2: subject + no – e.g., “Daddy no comb hair.”
Stage 3: auxiliary or modal verbs (do/can) + not
(Yet no variations for different persons or tenses)
e.g., “I can’t do it “, “He don’t want it.”
Stage 4: correct form of auxiliary verbs (did/doesn’t/is/are) +
not
e.g., He didn’t go. She doesn’t want it.
But sometimes double negatives are used
e.g., I don’t have no more candies.
 Acquisition
of Questio
ns
Lois Bloom’s study (1991) :
Order of the occurrence of wh- question words

1. “What” - Whatsat? Whatsit?

2. “Where” and “who”
3. “Why” (emerging at the end of the 2nd year
and becomes a favorite at the age of 3 or 4)
4. “How” and “When” (yet children do not
fully understand the meaning of adults’
responses)
e.g., Child: When can we go outside?
Mother: In about 5 minutes.
Child: 1-2-3-4-5! Can we go now?
 Acquisition
of Questio
ns
Lois Bloom’s study (1991):
Six stages of children’s question-
making

Stage 1: using single words or single two- or

three-word sentences with rising intonation
(“Mommy book?” “Where’s Daddy?”)
Stage 2: using the word order of the declarative
sentence (“You like this?” “Why you catch it?”)
Stage 3: “fronting” - putting a verb at the
beginning of a sentence
(“Is the teddy is tired?” “Do I can have a
cookie?”)
 Lois Bloom
’s study (19
91) – six st
ages (II
Stage 4: subject-auxiliary inversion in
yes/no questions but not in wh-questions
(“Do you like ice cream?” “Where I can
draw?”)
Stage 5: subject-auxiliary inversion in wh-
questions, but not in negative wh-questions
(“Why can he go out?” “Why he can’t
go out?”)
Stage 6: overgeneralizing the inverted
form in embedded questions
(“I don’t know why can’t he go out.”)
 [
Patterns in L1 Development

By the age of 4:
 Most children are able to ask questions, give commands, report
real events, and create stories about imaginary ones with correct
word order and grammatical markers most of the time.
 They have mastered the basic structures of the language or
languages spoken to them in these early years.
 They begin to acquire less frequent and more complex linguistic
structures such as passives and relative clauses.
 They begin to develop ability to use language in a widening
social environment.
 THEORETICAL APPROACHES
TO L1 ACQUISITION

Behaviorism: Say what I say

Innatism: It’s all in your mind

Interactionist/Developmental
perspectives:
Learning from inside and out
 Skinner: language behavior is the production of correct
responses to stimuli through reinforcement.

 Language learning is the result of 1) imitation (word-for-word

repetition), 2) practice (repetitive manipulation of form), 3)
feedback on success (positive reinforcement), and 4) habit
formation.

 The quality and quantity of the language that the child hears,
as well as the consistency of the reinforcement offered by
others in the environment, would shape the child’s language
behavior.
(*Do the activity on p. 10 – imitation and practice)
 Children’s imitations are not random:
 Their imitation is selective and based on what they are
currently learning. They choose to imitate something they have
already begun to understand, rather than simply imitating what is
available in the environment.
(see example on p. 11, Peter’s & Cindy’s case)
 Children’s practice of new language forms
 The way they practice new forms is very similar to the way
foreign language students do substitution drills.
 Their practice of language forms is also selective and reflects
what they would like to learn. They are often in charge of the
conversation with adults.
(see example on p. 12, Kathryn’s case)
However, children do use language creatively, not just
repeat what they have heard. (see examples on pp. 13-
14)

 Patterns in language
• Mother: Maybe we need to take you to the doctor.
Randall (36 months): Why? So he can doc my little
bump?” (showing the understanding of the suffix ‘er/or’)
• Son: I putted the plates on the table!
Mother: You mean, I put the plates on the table.
• Son: No, I putted them on all by myself.

(showing the understanding of using ‘ed’ to make the past

tense for a verb” and the focus on the meaning, not form)
Unfamiliar formulas

Father: I’d like to propose a toast.

Child: I’d like to propose a piece of bread.
Mother: I love you to pieces.
Child: I love you three pieces.

Question formation
Are dogs can wiggle their tails?
Are those are my boots?
Are this is hot?
 Order of events
You took all the towels away because I can’t dry my
hands.

 Imitation and practice alone cannot explain some

of the forms created by children. Children appear to
pick out patterns and then generalize or overgeneralize
them to new contexts. They create new forms or new
uses of words.
Chomsk
y’s view
points:

 Children are biologically programmed for language and language

develops in the child in just the same way that other biological functions
develop.
 The environment makes only a basic contribution, that is, the availability
of people who speak to the child. Therefore, the child’s biological
endowment (LAD) will do the rest.
 Children are born with a specific innate ability to discover for themselves
the underlying rules of a language system on the basis of the samples of a
natural language they are exposed to.
Chomsky argues that behaviorism cannot provide sufficient
explanations for children’s language acquisition for the
following reasons:

1. Children come to know more about the structure

of their language than they could be expected to
learn on the basis of the samples of language
they hear.
2. The language children are exposed to includes
false starts, incomplete sentences and slips of the
tongue, and yet they learn to distinguish between
grammatical and ungrammatical sentences.
3. Children are by no means systematically
corrected or instructed on language by parents.
 LAD (an imaginary “black box”
existing somewhere in the brain):
 LAD contains the principles which are universal to all
human languages (i.e.. Universal Grammar – UG).
 For the LAD to work, children need access only to
samples of a natural language, which serve as a trigger
to activate the device.
 Once the LAD is activated, children are able to
discover the structure of the language to be learned by
matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical
principles (UG) to the structures of the particular
language in the environment.
Evidence used to support Chomsky’s
innatist position:

1. Virtually all children successfully learn their native

language at a time in life when they would not be
expected to learn anything else so complicated (i.e.
biologically programmed).

2. Language is separate from other aspects of

cognitive developments (e.g., creativity and social
grace) and may be located in a different “module"
of the brain.
3. The language children are exposed to does not
contain examples of all the linguistic rules
and patterns.
4. Animals cannot learn to manipulate a symbol
system as complicated as the natural language
of a 3- or 4-year-old child.
5. Children acquire grammatical rules without
getting explicit instruction. Therefore,
children’s acquisition of grammatical rules is
probably guided by principle of an innate UG
which could apply to all languages.
The biological basis for the innatist
position

The Critical Period Hypothesis

(CPH) –
Lenneberg: There is a specific and limited time
period (i.e., “critical period”) for the LAD to work
successfully.
 The best evidence for the CPH is that virtually
every child learns language on a similar schedule in
spite of different environments.
 t i v es:
rs p e c
ta l Pe
op m en
d e ve l t
n i s t/ d o u
ra ctio i d e an
Inte m i ns
i n g fro
Learn
Problems of Innatism:
 The innatists placed too much emphasis on the
“final state” (i.e. the linguistic competence of adult
native speakers), but not enough on the
developmental aspects of language acquisition.
 Language acquisition is an example of children’s
ability to learn from experience. What children
need to know is essentially available in the
language they are exposed to.
 e n tal
e l op m
t/ d e v
t i o ni s e s: t
e ra c e c ti v d ou
Int Persp inside an
g from
a rn in
Le
 This position views that language develops as a result of
the interplay between the innate learning ability of children
and the environment in which they develop.

Developmental psychologists attribute more importance to

the environment than the innatists, though they also
recognize a powerful learning mechanism in the human
brain.

They see language acquisition as similar to and influenced

by the acquisition of other kinds of skill and knowledge,
rather than as something that is largely independent of the
child’s experience and cognitive development.
 s i t io n
is t Po
c ti o n
I nt e r a
The
Piaget:
 Language is dependent upon and springs from cognitive
development. That is, children’s cognitive development determines
their language development.
(e.g., the use of words as “bigger” or “more” depends on children’s
understanding of the concepts they represent.)

He argued that the developing cognitive understanding is built on the

interaction between the child and the things which can be observed,
touched, and manipulated.
 s i t io n
is t Po
c ti o n
I nt e r a
The

Piaget:

 For him, language was one of a number of symbol

systems developed in childhood, rather than a separate
module of the mind. Language can be used to represent
knowledge that children have acquired through physical
interaction with the environment.
 s i t io n
is t Po
c ti o n
I nt e r a
The
Vygotsky:
sociocultural theory of human mental processing. He argued
that language develops primarily from social interaction.
 Zone of proximal development (ZPD): a level that a child
is able to do when there is support from interaction with a more
advanced interlocutor. That is, a supportive interactive
environment enables children to advance to a higher level of
knowledge and performance than s/he would be able to do
independently.
 He observed the importance of conversations which children have
with adults and with other children and saw in these
conversations the origins of both language and thought.
 s i t io n
is t Po
c ti o n
I nt e r a
The How Piaget’s view differs from
Vygotsky’s:
 Piaget hypothesized that language developed as a
symbol system to express knowledge acquired through
interaction with the physical world.
 Vygotsky hypothesized that thought was essentially
internalized speech, and speech emerged in social
interaction.
 Sum
m ary
Each of the three theoretical approaches
explains a different aspect of first language
acquisition.

1. Behaviorists (learning through imitation, practice,

reinforcement, habit-formation) – the acquisition of
vocabulary and grammatical morphemes.
 Innatists (LAD/UG/CPH) – the acquisition of
complex grammar (structure of the language).
 Interactionists (social interaction) – the acquisition
of how form and meaning are related, how
communicative functions are carried out, and how
language is used appropriately.
 o d y 's s pec ia l p roperty. 
g li sh la nguage is nob
T h e En
ro p e rty o f th e imagination:
It is the p la n g uage itself. 
rty o f th e
it is the prope ~Derek Walcot

That wo
uld be a
ll…
Have a w
onderful
day ahe
ad.
 NATIVISM VS
EMPIRICISM
• MENTALISM
• BEHAVIORISM

• Chomsky • Skinner
• Mind has more innate • Mind has less innate
structure structure
• Language acquisition • Language acq. Is
is primarily primarily culturally
biologically determined
determined • Language is learned
• Language is acquired
 Theories of
Second Language
Acquisition
 Goal of a Theory of SLA
 Its main goal is description – the
characterization of the nature of the
linguistic categories which constitute the
learner’s interlanguage at any point in
development.

 Rutherford (1982:85) – “We wish to know

what it is that is acquired, how it is acquired
and when it is acquired. But were we to have
the answers even to these questions, we
would still want to know why.”

Brown (1980) defines
acculturation as “ the
process of becoming
adapted to a new
culture.”
The
Acculturation
Model
Central premise:
…second language acquisition
is just one aspect of
acculturation and the degree to
which a learner acculturates to
the target language group will
control the degree to which he
acquires the second language
( Schumann, 1978)
It is important because in
second language settings
the acquisition of a new
language is seen as tied to
the way in which the
learner’s community and
the target language
community view each other.
Acculturation and SLA is
determined by the
degree of social and
psychological distance
between the learner
and the target language
culture.
 Is determined by the degree
of

Social distance Psychological

- The result of a distance
number of factors - The result of
which affect the various
learner as a
member of a affective
social group in factors which
contact with the concern the
target language learner as
group. individual
 Social and
psychological distance
influence SLA by
determining the
amount of contact
with the target
language that the
learner experiences, and
also the degree to
which the learner is
open to that input
which is available.
 When social or
psychological Pidginization
distance is great, the hypothesis
learner’s language is
pidginized.

Fossilization
- Happens when the
When pidginization learners’ internalized
persists the learner rule system contains
fossilizes. rules different from
those of the target
language
 Schumann’s Acculturation Model

Social Factors
 May either inhibit or promote contact
between second language group (2LL group)
and the target language group (TL group)
 Assumption: the greater the social
distance between the two groups, the more
difficult it is for members of 2LL group to
acquire the language of the TL group
(Schumann, 1976)
 Social Factors

Social dominance pattern

Enclosure

Cohesiveness and size

Congruence and similarity between the life-style and

value systems

Attitude

Intended length of residence in the TL area

 Social Dominance
Pattern
• If the 2LL group is politically, culturally, and
technically or economically superior (or
consider themselves superior) than the TL
group, they will tend not to learn the target
language.
• Reverse situation: If the 2LL group is
inferior (or consider themselves inferior) to
the TL group, social distance can rise
between the two groups and the 2LL will
tend to resist learning the target
language.
 Social Dominance Pattern

Involves three integration

strategies:
1. Assimilation
2. Preservation
3. Acculturation
 Social Dominance Pattern

1.
Assimilation
• Involves giving up one’s life-style and values
in favour of another
• The best of the three strategies..why?
• Leads to maximum contact between two groups
and facilitates language learning
 Social Dominance Pattern
2.
Acculturation
• Represents a compromise procedure of
adapting to the way of life and language of
the TL group
• Second best because it yields varying
degrees of contact between the two
groups
 Social Dominance Pattern
3.
Preservation
• Is the opposite extreme because it involves
maintaining one’s culture
• Results in social distance and will give rise
to resistance in language learning
 Enclosur
e
• Refers to the amount of sharing of such
social constructs as schools, churches,
recreational facilities, professions and trades
that the 2LL group enjoys with the TL
group
• Such sharing enhances contact between
the two groups and consequently
facilitates the language learning
process
• But, the FEWER SOCIAL CONSTRUCTS THE
2LL GROUP SHARES WITH THE TL GROUP,
the more it will encounter difficulties in
learning the TL
 Cohesiveness and
Size
• If the group tends to be always together to
such an extent it separates itself from the
other group, then its cohesion will make
language learning difficult, since it will
give rise to social distance between the two
groups.
• If the group is large, then the interaction
with the group will INCREASE while
opportunities for contact with members of
the other group will DECREASE.
• Hence resulting to social distance and
difficulties in language learning.
 Congruence and Similarity bet. the life-
style and value system of the 2LL and TL
groups

• If the language of the two groups

belong on the same language family,
there will probably be close similarity
between their language structures.
• Both of them will enhance points of
contact between the two groups, and
language learning will be facilitated.
 Attitude

• For learning to be made easier, it is important

that the members of the 2LL group hold
positive ethnic stereotypes about the TL
group.
• If it holds a negative stereotype of the TL
group or if both 2LL and TL groups have
negative attitudinal orientation towards each
other, then social distance can emerge
and set up obstacles to effective language
learning.
 Intended length of
residence in the TL area

• If the 2LL group intends to stay

longer in the TL area, this fact will
tend to reduce social distance and
ameliorate motivation.
• If the 2LL group intends to stay in the
area permanently, the chances of
success in learning the TL are
enhanced.
 Schumann in 1976 pointed
out:

• All these factors interact such that one

affects the others.

• For example, a group’s cohesiveness may

result in high enclosure and affect
attitudinal orientation.
 Affective Factors
(psychological distance)

1. Language Shock
2. Culture Shock
3. Motivation
4. Ego permeability
1. Language
Shock
• Stengal (1979) – described it as
learner’s fear that he will appear
comic when he tries to speak to
the TL
• The less language shock the learner
experiences, the more probable it is
that he will learn to speak the TL.
• If he succeeds in conquering his
inhibitions and fears, he will more
likely to learn the TL.
 2. Culture Shock

• Schumann (1975) defines it as anxiety

resulting from disorientation
encountered upon entering a new
culture.
• Reason: person’s inability to cope with his
new set of problems, since the problem-
solving mechanisms which he was used to,
do not seem to work in the new setting.
• Results in the individual rejection of
himself and his culture, even the people
of his host country.
 Solution:

Larsen and Smalley (1972)

“What the learner needs is a

small community of
sympathetic people who will
help him in the difficult period
when he is a linguistic and
cultural child-adult. He needs
a new family to help him grow
up.”
 3. Motivation

• The learner’s reason for

trying to learn the target
language.

• Gardner and Lambert –

integrative and instrumental
motivation
 4. Ego Permeability

• An individual’s language ego develops with

his mastery of the phonology, morphology,
syntax, and lexicon of TL.
• His language competence then becomes
objectified and develops from outlines and
boundaries.
• In early stage of development, the language
ego boundaries are permeable but later
they become fixed and rigid.
• This rigidity is equated with heightened levels
of inhibition; when inhibition is lowered, ego
permeability is enhanced resulting to learn the
TL well.
Andersen’s
Nativization/Denativization
Theory
 Andersen sees second language
acquisition as the result of two
forces: nativization and
denativization
 Nativization

 Consists of assimilation wherein the

learner makes the input conform to his
own internalized view of what
constitutes the L2 system
 Strategy: simplify the learning task by
building hypotheses based on his
knowledge of L1; knowledge of the world
 Occurs in pidginization and during the
early stages of FLA (First Language
Acquisition) and SLA (Second Language
Acquisition)
 Denativazation

 Involves accommodation, wherein the

learner adjusts his internalized system to
make it fit the input
 Learners: use inferencing strategies which
enable him to remodel his interlanguage
system according to the “external norm”.
 Ellis – inferencing is defined as a means by
which the learner forms hypotheses by
attending to the input.
  Denativization is apparent in
depidginization (elaboration or
refinement of a pidgin language) which
occurs through the gradual
incorporation of forms from an
external language source; also
apparent in later stages of foreign
language acquisition and SLA.
 REMEMBER:

When social and

psychological distance are
great, the learner fails to
progress beyond the early
stages, with the result
that his language his
PIDGINIZED.
 NATIVIZATION MODEL
(Andersen)
SCHUMANN- SLA can be
explained simply in terms of input
and the general function the
learners wants to use the L2 for.

ANDERSEN- Not concern with the

learners’ internal processing
mechanisms but rather with
NATIVIZATION NATIVIZATION

 Pidginized  DEPidginized
 restricted  adequate
access to inputaccess to input
 creation of  1st/2nd lang.
unique 1st/2nd as increasing
lang. acq. approximation
towards
external
target norm
ANDERSEN’S NATIVIZATION
 2. ACCOMODATION
THEORY
•To investigate how
intergroup uses of language
reflect basic social and
psychological attitudes in
interethnic communication.
 KEY A (HIGH B (low
VARIABLES MOTIVATION, motivation, low
HIGH LEVEL OF level of
PROFICIENCY proficiency)
1. WEAK Strong
Identification IDENTIFICATION identification
with ingroup
2. inter-ethnic Makes favorable or Makes(-)
comparison no comparison, i.e comparison, i.e
ingroup not seen as ingroup seen as
inferior inferior
3. Perception Low perception High perception
of
ethnolinguistic
vitrality
4. Perception Soft and open Hard and closed
of ingroup
boundaries
5. Strong identification Weak