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Presented By:
1. Puput Yulianawati
2. Bunga Nuur Primayu Utami
What is Observation?
Quantitative
Qualitative if a numerical value is
That is only the absence or attached to the observed
presence of a property is phenomenon by counting
noted (fieldnote) or measuring.
What do observation reports
describe?
One answer to this question assumes that observation is a
perceptual process so that to observe is to look at, listen
to, touch, taste, or smell something, attending to details of
the resulting perceptual experience. Observers may have
the good fortune to obtain useful perceptual evidence
simply by noticing what’s going on around them, but in
many cases they must arrange and manipulate things to
produce informative perceptible results. In either case,
observation sentences describe perceptions or things
perceived.
Observers use magnifying glasses, microscopes, or telescopes to
see things that are too small or far away to be seen, or seen
clearly enough. The tools amplification devices are used to hear
faint sounds. But if to observe something is to perceive it, not
every use of instruments to augment the senses qualifies as
observational. Philosophers agree that you can observe the moons
of Jupiter with a telescope, or a heart beat with a stethoscope.
Their intuitions come from the plausible assumption that one can
observe only what one can see by looking, hear by listening, feel
by touching, and so on.
The identification of observation and perceptual experience
persisted well into the 20th century—so much so that Carl
Hempel could characterize the scientific enterprise as an attempt
to predict and explain the deliverances of the senses (Hempel
1952, 653). This was to be accomplished by using laws or lawlike
generalizations along with descriptions of initial conditions,
correspondence rules, and auxiliary hypotheses to derive
observation sentences describing the sensory deliverances of
interest.
Theory testing was treated as a matter of comparing
observation sentences describing observations made in
natural or laboratory settings to observation sentences
that should be true according to the theory to be tested.
This makes it imperative to ask what observation
sentences report. Even though scientists often record
their evidence non-sententially, for example n the form
of pictures, graphs, and tables of numbers, some of what
Hempel says about the meanings of observation
sentences applies to non-sentential observational
records as well.
How observational evidence might
be theory laden
It’s plausible that philosophers who value the kind of rigor, precision, and
generality to which l logical empiricists and other exact philosophers
aspired could do better by examining and developing techniques and
results from logic, probability theory, statistics, machine learning, and
computer modeling, etc. than by trying to construct highly general theories
of observation and its role in science. Logic and the rest seem unable to
deliver satisfactory, universally applicable accounts of scientific reasoning.