Chronic Complications

of diabetes mellitus
 Complications of Diabetes Mellitus
 Chronic Complications of  Acute Complications
Diabetes Mellitus of Diabetes Mellitus
 Microvascular  Hyperglycemia crisis
 Retinopathy  Diabetic ketoacidosis
(nonproliferative/proliferative)  Hyperglycemia
 Nephropathy hyperosmolar State
 Neuropathy  Lactic acidosis
 Sensory and motor (mono-  Hypoglycemia
and polyneuropathy)
 Autonomic
 Macrovascular
 Coronary artery disease
 Peripheral vascular disease
 Cerebrovascular disease
 Genetic and
environmental risk
factors impact
inflammation,
autoimmunity, and
metabolic stress are
leading to
hyperglycemia

Diabetes Volume 66, February 2017

Microvascular
Complications
Increased Polyol Pathway Flux
Aldose Reductase Function
Increased Intracellular Advanced
Glycation End-Product Formation
Activation of Protein Kinase C
Increased Hexosamine Pathway
Diabetic retinopathy
Pathophysiology of diabetic retinopathy
Hyperglycemia

Pericyte Hyperperfusion Capillary/

loss Endothelial
damage
Capillary
Loss of occlusion
autoregulation

Vasoactive
Loss of tight
factors
junction

Retinal
ischemia

Growth Macular
factors oedema

New vessels
-Low resistance
- No pericyte/autoregulation
 Advanced diabetic eye disease
Retinal ischemia

Neovascularitation

Pericyte Preretinal
loss haemorrhage

Neovascular Vitrous Retinal

glaucoma haemorrhage detachment

Blindness
 Diabetic retinopathy

 Blindness is primarily the result of progressive diabetic retinopathy

and clinically significant macular edema.
 Diabetic retinopathy is classified into two stages: nonproliferative
and proliferative.
 Nonproliferative diabetic retinopathy : marked by retinal vascular
microaneurysms, blot hemorrhages, and cotton wool spots
 The appearance of neovascularization in response to retinal hypoxia
is the hallmark of proliferative diabetic retinopathy.
 Duration of DM and degree of glycemic control are the best
predictors of the development of retinopathy; hypertension is also a
risk factor
 The most effective therapy for diabetic retinopathy is prevention.
Diabetic nephropathy
Pathophysiology of diabetic nephropathy
Hyperglycemia

Renal Protein glycation

vasodilatation Increased
intraglomerular
capillary pressure
Increased glomular
filtration rate
Hypertension
Increased
protein excretion

Microalbuminuria or Glomurular
macroalbuminuria damage

Nephropathy
 Diabetic nephropathy
 Diabetic nephropathy is the leading cause of ESRD in the US.
 Individuals with diabetic nephropathy almost always have
diabetic retinopathy.
 The stages of diabetic nephropathy are :
 Hyperfiltration
 Microalbuminuria
 Overtproteinuria
 Declining GFR
 End stage renal failure
 Microalbuminuria is defined as 30 to 300 mg/d in a 24-h collection
or 30 to 300 g/mg creatinine in a spot collection (preferred
method).
 The appearance of microalbuminuria (incipient nephropathy) in
type 1 DM is an important predictor of progression to overt
proteinuria (300 mg/d) or overt nephropathy.
 Hypertension more commonly accompanies microalbuminuria
or overt nephropathy in type 2 DM
 Diabetic nephropathy - treatment
 The optimal therapy for diabetic nephropathy is prevention.
 Interventions effective in slowing progression from
microalbuminuria to overt nephropathy include:
 near normalization of glycemia,
 strict blood pressure control, and
 administration of ACE inhibitors or ARBs, and
 treatment of dyslipidemia.
 Blood pressure should be maintained at 130/80 mmHg in
diabetic individuals without proteinuria.
 A slightly lower blood pressure (125/75) should be considered
for individuals with microalbuminuria or overt nephropathy
 A consensus panel of the ADA suggests modest restriction of
protein intake in diabetic individuals with microalbuminuria (0.8
g/kg per day) or overt nephropathy (<0.8 g/kg per day)
Diabetic neuropathy
Mechanism of nerve damage in diabetes

METABOLIC VASCULAR

myoinositol
glucose
Altered membrane
potensial
Arterial
Slow nerve sorbitol narrowing
conduction AGE
formation
nerve vasoconstriction
oedema NO
production
Impairing
axonal transport

Vessel
occlusion
H2O
 Diabetic neuropathy
 Diabetic neuropathy occurs in approximately 50% of individuals
with long-standing type 1 and type 2 DM.
 The development of neuropathy correlates with the duration of
diabetes and glycemic control; both myelinated and unmyelinated
nerve fibers are lost.
 Several stage :
 Intraneural biochemical abnormalities; sorbitol accumulation,
myoinositol depletion
 Impairement of electrophysiological measurement; decreased
nerve conduction velocity; asymptomatic
 Clinical neuropathy; detectable using clinical methods; maybe
symptomatic. Histological changes evident
 End stage complications. Exp are ulceration and Charcot
neuroarthropathy; major derangements of neural structure and
function.
 Clinical features symmetrical
sensorimotor neuropathy
Symptoms Signs
 Loss of sensation ;  Sensory loss
 Anaesthesia;’numbness’
 Diminished/absent tendon
 Loss of pain perception
reflexs
 Altered sensation:
 Muscle wasting and
 Paraesthesiae
 Dysaesthesiae weakness
 Pain  Autonomic dysfunction
 Burning  Foot uleration
 Hyperalgesia/allodynia
 Neuralgia – lancinating pain
 Cramps ; restless leg
Burning, feeling like the feet are on fire Freezing, like the feet are on ice,
although they feel warm to touch

Stabbing, like sharp knives Lancinating, like electric shocks

 Treatment of Symmetric
Neuropathy
 Glucose control
 Pain control
 Tricyclic antidepressants
 Amitriptyline,desipramin, nortriptilin, trazodone
 Anticonvulsants
 Carbamazepine, gabapentin
 Topical creams
 capsaicin
 Foot care
 Autonomic Neuropathy
 DM-related autonomic neuropathy can involve multiple systems,
including the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, genitourinary,
sudomotor, and metabolic systems.
 Autonomic neuropathies affecting the cardiovascular system
cause a resting tachycardia and orthostatic hypotension.
 Gastroparesis and bladderemptying abnormalities are often
caused by the autonomic neuropathy seen in DM (discussed
below).
 Hyperhidrosis of the upper extremities and anhidrosis of the
lower extremities result from sympathetic nervous system
dysfunction.
 Anhidrosis of the feet can promote dry skin with cracking, which
increases the risk of foot ulcers.
 Autonomic neuropathy may reduce counterregulatory hormone
release, leading to an inability to sense hypoglycemia
appropriately ((hypoglycemia unawareness)
Macrovascular
complications
 Macrovascular complication
 Macrovascular complications of diabetes mellitus are condition
characterized by atherosclerotic occlusive disease of cerebral,
myocard and lower extremities.
 Atherothrombosis is the most common cause of macrovascular
complications
 Atherothrombosis is characterized by a sudden (unpredictable)
atherosclerotic plaque disruption (rupture or erosion) leading to
platelet activation and thrombus formation
 Atherothrombosis is the underlying condition that results in
events leading to myocardial infarction, ischemic stroke,
amputation and vascular death
 Atherogenesis – A Complex And Progressive
Process1
Pathology of Atherogenesis
Initiation:
Accumulation of lipids at
vascular junctions Inflammatory cytokines induce
experiencing high shear expression of adhesion molecules
forces

Macrophages
bind to and enter
intima wall
Macrophages
become foam Chemo-attractants such as PDGF
Uptake of Lipids by cells & fatty released from activated macrophages
Macrophages streak formed

Smooth muscle Result: Atherosclerotic

cells (SMCs) plaque2
migrate into the
intima

Adapted from: P Libby, The Vascular Biology of Atherosclerosis, in: Braunwald

E, Zipes DP & Libby P 6th Edition, Heart Disease: a Textbook of Cardiovascular
Medicine 2001: London: WB Saunders. 2. Davies MJ. Heart 2000;83:361-66, with permission from the BMJ Publishing Group
 Atherothrombosis Has Multiple
Manifestations

Ischemic stroke Transient ischemic attack

Myocardial
infarction Angina:
• Stable
• Unstable

Peripheral arterial disease:

• Intermittent claudication
• Rest pain
• Gangrene
• Necrosis
Adapted from: Drouet L. Cerebrovasc Dis 2002;13(suppl 1):1–6
 Macrovascular disease in diabetes
mellitus
 Cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease account for up 70%
of death in patients with type 2 DM
 All patients with type 2 diabetes have greater predipostition to
macrovascular disease, often having a constellation of risk
factors, which have been term insulin resistance.
 It has been hypotethesized that insulin resistance and
hyperinsulinemia (environmental and genetic factors), are central
to development :
 Glucose intolerance
 Hypertension
 Dyslipidemia
 Coagulopathy
 These factors promote accelerated atherosclerosis, explaining the
increased risk of macrovascular disease.
 Diabetes and Macrovascular
Disease

Libby and Plutsky. Circulation. 2002.

 Strategies for reducing macrovascular
complications

 Prevention proven intervention trials

 Hyperglycemia
 Dyslipidemia
 Hypertension
 Antiplatelet therapies

 Prevention suggested by epidemiologic analysis

 Disorders of thrombolysis
 Endothelial disorders
The diabetic foot
 Diabetic foot disease
 Approximately 15% of individuals with DM develop a foot ulcer,
and a significant subset will ultimately undergo amputation (14 to
24%risk with that ulcer or subsequent ulceration).
 Syndrome of diabetic foot disease
 Peripheral neuropathy, peripheral vascular disease and tissue
infection
 Risk factors for foot ulcers or amputation include: male sex,
diabetes 10 years’ duration, peripheral neuropathy, abnormal
structure of foot (bony abnormalities,callus, thickened nails),
peripheral arterial disease, smoking, history of previous ulcer or
amputation, and poor glycemic control.
 The plantar surface of the foot is the most common site of
ulceration.
 Ulcers may be primarily neuropathic (no accompanying
infection) or may have surrounding cellulitis or osteomyelitis.
 Pathophysiology of diabetic foot
Neuropathy

Motor Neuropathy Neuropathy Microvascular

dysfunction disease

Reduced pain
Sensation and
proprioception
Abnormal
Foot posture

Increased foot Dry, cracked

prssure Poor tissue
skin nutrition and
Cheiroarthropathy oxygenation

Arteriovenous
shunting
Callus

Ulcer
Mechanical,
Trauma thermal, Macrovascular
chemical Ischemia
disease
 Acute Complication of Diabetes
Mellitus

 Hyperglycemia crisis
 Diabeticketoacidosis (DKA)
 Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar State (HHS)

 Hypoglycemia
 Diabetic ketoacidosis
(DKA)
Hyperglycemic Hyperosmolar State
(HHS)
Pathophysiolgy of hyperglycemia crisis
 Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA)
 DKA was formerly considered a hallmark of type 1
DM
 The symptoms and physical signs of DKA
 Symptoms : Nausea/vomiting, Thirst/polyuria, Abdominal
pain, Shortness of breath
 Physical findings : Tachycardia, Dry mucous
membranes/reduced skin turgor, Dehydration / hypotension,
Tachypnea / Kussmaul, respirations/respiratory distress,
Abdominal tenderness (may resemble acute pancreatitis or
 surgical abdomen), Lethargy /obtundation / cerebral edema
/ possibly coma
 Precipitating factors
 Inadequate insulin administration
 Infection (pneumonia/UTI/
 Gastroenteritis/sepsis
 Infarction (cerebral, coronary, mesenteric,
peripheral)
 Drugs (cocaine)
 Pregnancy
 HHS: Differences from DKA
 Patients usually older- typically 60 or more
 Major pathophysiologic differences
 longer uncompensated osmotic diuresis
 greater volume depletion
 Acidemia (pH > 7.3) and ketosis are mild
 Higher mortality -
 often 30-50%
 primarily due to underlying vascular or infectious event
 Occurs in Type 2 diabetics, often mild or unrecognized
 Definition of HHS
 Extreme hyperglycemia
 Increased serum osmolality
 Severe dehydration without significant ketosis or
acidosis

Joslin’s Diabetes Mellitus, 13th ed

 Clinical Findings of HHS
 HHS should be suspect : elderly patient with or without the
preexisting diagnosis of diabetes who exhibits acute or subacute
deterioration of CNS function and severely dehydrated
 Tachycardia
 Low grade fever
 Low or normal blood pressure
 Dehydration – dry mucous membrane, absent axillary sweat, poor
skin turgor.
 Nausea, vomiting, distension, and pain-gastroparesis is due to
hypertonicity
 Lethargy, hallucinations, and psychosis
Laboratory Findings
DKA HHS
Fluid Balance in Diabetic
Hyperosmolarity
ECF = 14 L ICF = 28 L

ECF ICF

H2O

Osmotic Diuresis ECF hyperosmolar from ICF autotransfusion

H2O

Osmotic Diuresis ECF and ICF both hyperosmolar

 Priority in the Treatment of
Hyperglycemia Crisis
 Replacing volume deficits – normal saline according
to BP, urine output and CVP value for old age, total
deficits around 6-9 liters.
 Correcting hyperosmolarity to 300 milliosmoles/L
 Managing any underlying illnesses
 Insulin ; RI 0.15u/kg bolus then 0.1/kg/hr infusion
until blood sugar about 250mg/dl or osmo about 315
Thank your for your attention