S-72.

1140 Transmission Methods in

Telecommunication Systems (5 cr)

Digital Transmission
 I Baseband Digital Transmission

 Why to Apply Digital Transmission?

 Digital Transmission
 Symbols and Bits
– M-level Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
– Line codes (Binary PAM Formats)
 Baseband Digital Transmission Link
– Baseband Unipolar Binary Error Probability
– Determining Decision Threshold
– Error rate and Q-function
– Baseband Binary Error Rate in Terms of Pulse Shape and g
 Pulse Shaping and Band-limited Transmission
– Signaling With Cosine Roll-off Signals
– Matched Filtering
– Root-raised cos-filtering
 Eye diagram

2 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 II Carrier Wave Digital Transmission
 Waveforms of Digital Carrier Wave Communications
 Detection of Digital CW
– Coherent Detection
• Error rate; General treatment
– Non-coherent Detection
• Example of error rate determination (OOK)
 Timing and Synchronization
 Error rate for M-PSK
 Error rate for M-QAM
 Comparison of digital CW methods

3 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 Why to Apply Digital Transmission?
 Digital communication withstands channel noise, interference
and distortion better than analog system. For instance in PSTN
inter-exchange STP*-links NEXT (Near-End Cross-Talk)
produces several interference. For analog systems interference
must be below 50 dB whereas in digital system 20 dB is
enough. With this respect digital systems can utilize lower
quality cabling than analog systems
 Regenerative repeaters are efficient. Note that cleaning of
analog-signals by repeaters does not work as well
 Digital HW/SW implementation is straightforward
 Circuits can be easily configured and programmed by DSP
techniques
 Digital signals can be coded to yield very low error rates
 Digital communication enables efficient exchange of SNR to
BW-> easy adaptation into different channels
 The cost of digital HW continues to halve every two or three
years

STP: Shielded twisted pair

4 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen
 Transmitted power;
bandpass/baseband
signal BW
Digital
Information:
Transmission
Information
- analog:BW &
source
dynamic range Message
Message
- digital:bit rate estimate Information
sink
Source
Maximization of encoder Source
information decoder
transferred Channel Channel In baseband systems
Encoder decoder these blocks are missing
Message protection &
channel adaptation;
Interleaving Deinterleaving
convolution, block
coding
Modulator Demodulator
Fights against burst
errors
Received signal
Transmitted
Channel (may contain errors)
M-PSK/FSK/ASK..., signal
depends on channel wireline/wireless
Noise constant/variable
BW & characteristics
Interference linear/nonlinear

 ‘Baseband’ means that no carrier wave modulation is used for transmission

5 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen
 Symbols and Bits – M-ary PAM
D (symbol rate r  1/ D baud)
Tb (bitrate rb  1/ Tb bits/s) n  log 2 M

1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

s (t )
M  2n

Generally: s (t )   ak p (t  kD ) (a PAM* signal) n : number of bits

k
 M : number of levels
For M=2 (binary signalling): s (t )   ak p (t  kTb ) 
k 
 D : Symbol duration
For non-Inter-Symbolic Interference (ISI), p(t) must Tb : Bit duaration
satisfy: 1, t  0
p (t )  
0, t   D, 2 D...
This means that at the instant of decision, received signal
component is
s (t )   ak p(t  kD)  aK p (t K )  aK
k
*Pulse Amplitude Modulation
6 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen
Binary PAM Formats (1)
Bit stream

Unipolar RZ and NRZ

Polar RZ and NRZ

Bipolar NRZ or
alternate mark inversion
(AMI)

Split-phase Manchester

7 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 Binary PAM Formats (2)

 Unipolar RZ, NRZ:

– DC component has no information, wastes power
– Transformers and capacitors in route block DC
– NRZ, more energy per bit, synchronization more difficult
 Polar RZ, NRZ:
– No DC term if ´0´and ´1´ are equally likely
 Bipolar NRZ
– No DC term
 Split-phase Manchester
– Zero DC term regardless of message sequence
– Synchronization simpler
– Requires larger bandwidth

8 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

Baseband Digital Transmission Link

tD
Unipolar PAM

original message bits

received wave y(t)

y (t )   ak p (t  td  kD)  n(t ) decision instances

k

message reconstruction at tK  KD  td yields

y (t K )  ak   ak p ( KD  kD)  n(t )
k K

message ISI Gaussian bandpass noise

9 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 Baseband Unipolar Binary Error Probability

Assume binary & unipolar x(t)

The sample-and-hold circuit yields:
r.v. Y : y (tk )  ak  n(tk )
Establish H0 and H1 hypothesis:
H 0 : ak  0, Y  n
pY ( y | H 0 )  pN ( y )
and
H 1 : ak  1, Y  A  n
pY ( y | H 1 )  pN ( y  A)
pN(y): Noise probability density
function (PDF) at the time
instance of sampling
10 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen
 Determining Decision Threshold
H 0 : ak  0, Y  n
pY ( y | H 0 )  pN ( y )

H 1 : ak  1, Y  A  n
pY ( y | H 1 )  pN ( y  A)

The comparator implements decision rule:

Choose Ho (ak=0) if Y<V
pe1  P(Y  V | H1 )   pY ( y | H1 )dy Choose H1 (ak=1) if Y>V
V

peo  P(Y  V | H 0 )  V pY ( y | H 0 )dy



Average error error probability: Pe  P0 Pe 0  PP

1 e1
Transmitted ‘0’
but detected as ‘1’
P0  P1  1/ 2  Pe  12 ( Pe 0  Pe1 )
Channel noise is Gaussian with the pfd:
 x 
2
1
pN ( x )  exp   2 
 2  2 
11 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen
 Error rate and Q-function

pe 0  V pN ( y)dy

pe1 pe 0

 x 
2
1
pe 0  V exp   2  dx


 2  2 
This can be expressed by using the Q-function

   xm
2
1 
Q(k )  k exp   d  
2  2 
by
V 
pe 0  V pN ( y )dy  Q  


 
and also

 A V 
Pe1   pN ( y  A)dy  Q 
V

   m: mean
2: variance
12 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen
 Assigment

13 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 Solution

14 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

Baseband Binary Error Rate
in Terms of Pulse Shape
setting V=A/2 yields then
pe  12 ( pe 0  pe1 )  pe 0  pe1  pe  Q 
A

 2 
for unipolar, rectangular NRZ [0,A] bits
1 1 2
S R  ( A)  (0)  A2 / 2
2 probability of occurrence
2 2 for bits ’0’ and ’1’

for polar, rectangular NRZ [-A/2,A/2] bits

1 1
S R  ( A / 2)  ( A / 2) 2  A2 / 4
2

2 2
and hence

 A A2  S R /(2 N R ), unipolar
2

   
 2   2 NR
4 N R  S R / N R , polar

15 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 Assignment
 Determine average power for the following signals
T
A

-A

A
A/2

-A/2
-A

T
16 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen
 Solution
T
A
1 1
S R  ( A) 2  ( A) 2  A2
2 2
-A

A
A/2 1 1 5 2
S R  ( A)  ( A / 2)  A
2 2

2 2 8
-A/2
-A
T

17 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

Pulse Shaping and Band-limited Transmission

 In digital transmission signaling pulse shape is chosen to satisfy

the following requirements:
– yields maximum SNR at the time instance of decision
(matched filtering)
– accommodates signal to channel bandwidth:
• rapid decrease of pulse energy outside the main lobe in
frequency domain alleviates filter design
• lowers cross-talk in multiplexed systems

18 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 Signaling With Cosine Roll-off Signals
 Maximum transmission rate can be obtained with sinc-pulses
 p(t )  sinc  rt   sinc  t / D 

 1 f
 P( f )  F [ p(t )]  r   r 
  
 However, they are not time-limited. A more practical choice is
the cosine roll-off signaling:
for raised cos-pulses =r/2

1 2  f cos 2 t
P ( f )  r / 2  cos  ( f / 2r ) p (t )  sinc rt
r 2r 1  (4  t ) 2

19 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 Unipolar and Polar Error Rates in Terms of Eb/No

 Eb/No is often indicated by

g E /N S /N r
b b 0 R 0 b

 For sinc- pulse signalling the transmission BW is limited to BN  rb / 2

and therefore noise before decision is limited to
N R  N 0 BN  N 0 rb / 2
and therefore

 A   S R /(2 N R )  2g b N 0 rb /(2 N 0 rb )  g b , unipolar

2

  
 2   S R /( N R )  2g b N 0 rb / N 0 rb  2g b , polar

 A
pe  Q    pe ( polar )  Q
 2 
 
2g b , pe ( unipolar )  Q  g
b

20 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

Matched Filtering

 xR (t )  AR p(t  t0 ) Gn ( f ) 
 2 yD (t )
 X R ( f )  AR P( f )exp( j t0 ) xR (t )
+ H(f)
A  F 1[ H ( f ) X R ( f )] t t t 0 d Peak amplitude to be maximized


 A  H ( f ) P( f )exp  jt df

R d



 

   H ( f ) G ( f )df 
2 2
 H ( f ) df
2
n
Post filter noise
 2 

 2

 H ( f ) P ( f ) exp  j td df
 A
2

   AR
2 
Should be maximized
   2
 H ( f ) df
2 
 2  

 V ( f )W * ( f )df   W ( f ) df  V ( f ) df
2 2
Using Schwartz’s inequality
  

 H ( f )  KP( f )exp( jtd )  h(t )  Kp(td  t )

21 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen
 Assignment

 What is the impulse response of the matched filter for the

following signaling waveform?
A

T
 How would you determine the respective output signal (after the
matched filter)?

22 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

Avoiding ISI and enabling band-limiting in
radio systems
 Two goals to achieve: band limited transmission & matched filter
reception
data TX RX Decision
filt. filt. device
T( f ) noise R( f )
T ( f )R ( f )  C N ( f ), raised-cos shaping

T ( f )  R *( f ), matched filtering

R( f ) T( f ) CN ( f )
 Hence at the transmitter and receiver
alike root-raised cos-filters
must be applied

raised cos-spectra CN(f)

23 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen
 Monitoring Transmission Quality
by Eye Diagram

Required minimum bandwidth is

BT  r / 2
Nyqvist’s sampling theorem:

Given an ideal LPF with the

bandwidth B it is possible to
transmit independent
symbols at the rate:
BT  r / 2  1/(2Tb )

24 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 Assignment

 How many eye/openings you have in an M-level signaling?

25 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

S-72.1140 Transmission Methods in
Telecommunication Systems (5 cr)

Digital Bandpass Transmission

Binary Waveforms in Carrier Wave Communications

ASK

FSK

PSK

DSB

27 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 Carrier Wave Communications
 Carrier wave modulation is used to transmit messages over a
distance by radio waves (air, copper or coaxial cable), by optical
signals (fiber), or by sound waves (air, water, ground)
 CW transmission allocates bandwidth around the applied
carrier that depends on
– message bandwidth and bit rate
– number of encoded levels (word length)
– source and channel encoding methods
 Examples of transmission bandwidths for certain CW
techniques:
 MPSK, M-ASK BT  r  rb / n  rb / log 2 M ( M  2n )
 Binary FSK (fd=rb/2) BT  rb
 MSK (CPFSK fd=rb/4), QAM: BT  rb / 2

FSK: Frequency shift keying

CPFSK: Continuous phase FSK
28 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen
 Digital CW Detection

 At the receiver, detection can be

– coherent (carrier phase information used for detection)
– non- coherent (no carrier phase used for detection)
– differentially coherent (‘local oscillator’ synthesized from
received bits)
 CW systems characterized by bit or symbol error rate (number
of decoded errors(symbols)/total number of bits(symbols))
 Number of allocated signaling levels determines constellation
diagram (=lowpass equivalent of the applied digital modulation
format)

29 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 Coherent Detection by Integrate and Dump /
Matched Filter Receiver
 Coherent detection utilizes carrier phase information and requires in-
phase replica of the carrier at the receiver (explicitly or implicitly)
 It is easy to show that these two techniques have the same
performance:

y (t ) h(t )  s (  t ) v (T )

v(t )  s (  t )  y (t )
 0 s (t   ) y ( )d


y (t ) v (T )

ss(t t ))
v(t )  0 s(t   ) y( )d


30 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 Non-coherent Detection
 Base on filtering signal energy on allocated spectra and using
envelope detectors
 Has performance degradation of about 1-3 dB when compared
to coherent detection (depending on Eb/N0)
 Examples:

2-ASK

2-FSK

31 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 Coherent (Optimum) Binary Detection

m  0,1

 Received signal consists of bandpass filtered signal and noise

that is sampled at the decision time instants tk yielding decision
variable: Y  y (tk )  zm  n
 Quadrature presentation of the signaling waveform is
sm (t )  AC I k pi (t )cos(C t )  Qk pq (t )sin(C t )
 Assuming that the BPF has the impulse response h(t), signal
component at the sampling instants is then expressed by
( k 1) Tb
zm  sm (t  kTb )  h(t ) t t
k
 sm (  kTb )h(tk   )d 
kTb


Tb
 sm ( )h(Tb   )d 
( x  y (t ) 
 x( ) y(t   )d  )
0

A
32 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen
Optimum Binary Detection - Error Rate
 Assuming ‘0’ and ‘1’ reception is equally likely, error happens
when H0 (‘0’ transmitted) signal hits the dashed region or for H1
error hits the left-hand side of the decision threshold that is at
Vopt  ( z1  z0 ) / 2

 x For optimum performance

Q 
   we have the maximized
SNR that is obtained
by matched filtering/
integrate and dump receiver

 z1  z0 / 2 
2

Errors for ‘0’ or/and ‘1’ are equal alike, for instance for ‘0’:

 Vopt  z0 

1
pe 0  exp      z0  / 2  d   Q 
 
2 2

 
 2 Vopt  
pe  ( pe 0  pe1 ) / 2  Q  z1  z0 / 2 
33 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen
 Optimum Binary Detection (cont.)
 Express energy / bit embedded in signaling waveforms by

  s (  )  s (  )  d    s ( ) d 
Tb Tb
2 2
1 0 1
0 0
E1

 
Tb Tb
 s0 ( )d   2
2
s0 ( ) s1 ( ) d 
0 0
E0 E10

pe  Q  z1  z0 / 2 
Note that the signaling waveform
correlation greatly influences the SNR!

 Therefore, for coherent CW we have the SNR and error rate

z1  z0 E1  E0  2 E10  E1  E0  2 E10   Eb  E10 

2

  pe  Q    Q 
4 2  2  / 2
2  2    
Eb E
SNRmax   b  No   2   / 2
No  / 2
34 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen
 Example: Coherent Binary On-off Keying (OOK)

 For on-off keying (OOK) the signaling waveforms are

s1 (t )  AC pTb (t )cos C t , s0 (t )  0
and the optimum coherent receiver can be sketched by

SR SR S RTb Eb
gb    
W  (1/ Tb )  

 
Tb Tb
E1  s1 ( )d   ACTb / 2, E0  0, E10 
2 2
s1 ( ) s0 ( )d   0
0 0

 Eb  E10   Eb 
Eb  ( E0  E1 ) / 2  ACTb / 4 pe  Q 2


  Q Q  g
  
b
 

35 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 Timing and Synchronization s (t )
h(t )
z (t )
 Performance of coherent detection is greatly
dependent on how successful local carrier recovery is
 Consider the bandpass signal s(t) with width Tb rectangular
pulses pTb(t), that is applied to the matched filter h(t): (  c )
s (t )  AC pTb (t ) cos( C t ),
h(t )  Ks (Tb  t )  KpTb (Tb  t ) cos( C t    )
 z ( )  s(t )  h(t )
Tb

   Tb  E   s 2 (t )dt
 KA     cos c   cos  2ct  c  0

 Tb   AC2Tb / 2
tk
yelding after filtering:
Tc

   Tb 
 KA    cos c 
 Tb 

  s (  )  s (  )  d    s ( ) d    s (  ) d   2  s (  ) s (  ) d 
Tb Tb Tb Tb
2 2 2
1 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
E1 E0 E10
nominal point
of inspection at Tb
36 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen
 Analyzing phase
 Therefore, due to phase mismatch error by Mathcad
at the receiver, the error rate is
degraded to

 Eb  E10 
pe  Q  cos   
2

  
    c

37 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 Example
 Assume data rate is 2 kbaud/s and carrier is 100 kHz for an
BPSK system. Hence the symbol duration and carrier period are
TS  1/ 2kbaud/s = 0.5ms TC  1/ f C  1/100 103  10  s
therefore the symbol duration is in radians
10 s 2
  x  314.2rad(or carrier cycles)
0.5ms x
 Assume carrier phase error is 0.3 % of the symbol duration.
Then the resulting carrier phase error is
  0.003x  0.94 rad  54 o

and the error rate for instance for g  8  9dB is

pe  Q( 2g cos 2   Q( 16cos 2 54)  102
that should be compared to the error rate without any phase
errors or pe  Q( 16)  3 105
 Hence, phase synchronization is a very important point to
remember in coherent detection

38 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 011
111
001

Error rate for M-PSK nq d

 000
101 A

100 010
 In general,PSK error rate can be expressed by 110

 d  a decision region sin( / 2) 

d /2
pe  nnQ  
 n  
n Q A
 2   
where d is the distance between constellation points (or a=d/2 is
the distance from constellation point to the decision region
border) and nn is the average number of constellation points in
the immediate neighborhood. Therefore
 d   2 A sin( / 2)  A 
pe  2Q    2Q    2Q  sin( / M ) 
 2   2     
Note that for matched filter reception
M  2n
A 2E 2
 , E  nEb  log 2 ( M ) Eb 
 N0 M

39 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 Error rate for M-QAM, example 16-QAM
 d  a
pe  nnQ    nnQ   2  3a 
2

 2     18a 2

4 4  83  4 2 a2
nn  3
48 4 2a 2

4  2a 2  8 10a 2  4 18a 2  3a   a
2 2

A 
2
 10a 2  10a 2
16
 A2   2E 
a
pe  3Q    3Q    3Q   symbol error rate
   10 2   10 N 0 
 
Constellation follows from 4-bit words and therefore
n  log 2 M , E  nEb
3  2E  3  4 Eb  
pb  Q    Q   pe  p( E ) / n
4  10 N 0  4  5N0  
E 4 Eb
 A /   2E / N0
40 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen
 Non-coherent Detection

41 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 Example: Non-coherent On-off Keying (OOK)

 Bandpass filter is matched to the signaling waveform (not to

carrier phase), in addition fc>>fm, and therefore the energy for ‘1’
is simply E1  Tb ( AC / 2)
2

 Envelopes follow Rice and Rayleigh distributions for ‘1’ and ‘0’
respectively:

distribution for ”0”"

distribution for "1"

42 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 Noncoherent OOK Error Rate
 The optimum decision threshold is at the intersection of Rice
and Rayleigh distributions (areas of error probability are the
same on both sides of decision threshold)
 Usually high SNR is assumed and hence the threshold is
approximately at the half way and the error rate is the average
of '0' and '1' reception probabilities
probability to detect "0" in error
2
1 Pe  Pe 0  Pe1 

P        exp  g b / 2 
 e 0 A/2 Y
2 2
p (Y | H 0
)dy exp AC
/ 8

C
probability to detect "1" in error
A /2
P 
C

 e1 0 pY (Y | H1 )dy  Q( AC / 2 )  Q( g b )
 Therefore, error rate for noncoherent OOK equals

Pe  1 exp(g b / 2)  Q( g b )   1 exp(g b / 2), g b  1

2 2
43 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen
 Comparison

44 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 Error Rate Comparison

a: Coherent BPSK
b: DPSK
c:Coherent OOK
d: Noncoherent FSK
e: noncoherent OOK

45 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen

 Comparison of Quadrature Modulation
Methods
Note that still the performance is good, envelope is not
constant. APK (or M-QASK) is used for instance
in modems

(pe=10-4)

(pe=10-4)

PRK  BPSK
APK=MQASK
APK  M  QASK  M  QAM M-APK: Amplitude Phase Shift Keying
46 Helsinki University of Technology,Communications Laboratory, Timo O. Korhonen