BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

UNIT 3
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Introduction to manufacturing processes and their applications
(Casting, Forging, sheet metal working and metal joining processes),
Description of the casting process : Sand casting (Cope and Drag),
Sheet metal forming (shearing, Bending, Drawing),
Forging (Hot working and Cold working comparison),
Electric arc welding, Comparison of – Welding, Soldering, Brazing.
 Introduction
Manufacturing : Manufacturing is process of converting raw
material into finished product.

Manufacturing is the application of physical and chemical

processes to alter the geometry, properties, and/or appearance of a
given starting material to make parts or products.
 Classification

Manufacturing
Process
Primary Machining Joining Surface
Deforming Sheet Metal
Shaping Process Process finishing
Process Working
Process Process
1.Casting 1.Forging 1.Turning 1.Fusing 1.Grinding 1.Shearing or
2.Powder 2.Rolling 2.Drilling 2.Welding 2.Coating Cutting
Metallurgy 3.Sheet Metal 3.Milling 3.Soldering 3.Honing 2. Metal
3.Processing Working 4.Shaping 4.Brazing 4.Lapping Forming
of Plastic 4.Extrusion 5.Reaming 5.Riveting
6.Adhesive
bonding
 Casting Process
Casting is manufacturing process in which molten metal is poured
or injected into a mould or cavity and allowed to freeze which
confirms to shape of desired component. The term casting is used to
denote both the product and the process.
Casting Terminology
 Pattern : Replica of object or component to be
produced.

 Mould : The cavity which conforms to the shape of

the component to be manufactured and into which
the molten metal is poured.

 Mould Box : The two Part casting flask used for

process

 Cope : The upper part of mould box

 Drag : The lower part of mould box

 Casting : Component or metal object obtained by

pouring the molten metal into a mould and allowing
it to solidify

 Foundry : A plant where the casting are produced.

Overall Steps in Casting Process
 Advantages and Limitations of Casting
Advantages
 Complicated shapes can be
produced.
 Very small to very large size can
be produced.
 Almost all types of alloys and
metals are used.
 Economical for small as well as
mass production.
 Special Casting processes like, die
casting give good dimensional
accuracy and surface finish
 Low cost manufacturing
Limitations
 Component of thickness less than
6 mm difficult to produce.
 Melting of metal involves high
energy consumption.
 Requires large power and large
space
 Blow holes, gas cavities and
cracks defects reduces strength of
component.
 Poor dimensional accuracy and
surface finish.
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 Sand Casting Process
 The casting process in which the
Pattern Making
castings are made using sand mould is
known as sand casting process. It is most
Core Making
commonly used method of making
casting. Mould Making

 Steps in sand Casting : Melting and Pouring Metal in

Furnace
Pattern Making is generally one tine
process Cooling and Solidification of
Casting
Core Making is optional ,if part is having
internal holes or hollow shape Finishing
 For producing a casting part; every time a
Testing
new sand mould to be prepared.
 Sand Casting

A large sand casting weighing more than 680 kg for an air compressor frame.
 Sand Casting Process
 Advantages:
 Highly economical. Cost of component is low
 Less initial investment needed.
 Does not requires highly skilled manpower.
 Suitable for small as well as mass production.
 Limitations:
 Poor surface finish & dimensional accuracy.
 Not suitable for complicated shapes.
 Not suitable for thin sections.
 Each casting requires one mould.
 Highly skilled manpower is required.
 Requires large working space.
 Application: Gear box housing, Machine tool beds, Gears, Bearing
housing etc. 5/2/2019 10
 Applications of Casting Process
 Automobiles - gear box housing, crankcase, piston, cylinder, etc.
 Aircrafts - Jet engine blades.
 Machine tools - Beds, frames.
 Turbines - wheels, housing, turbine vanes.
 Pipings – Sanitary fittings.
 Sheet Metal Working
 Sheet metal working is associated with press machines and
press working.
 It is process of manufacturing a components/ parts from
metal sheets
 Thickness of metal varies from 0.1 mm to 10 mm
 During the operation metal sheet is kept on the die ( which is
stationary) and punch (which is moving) moves downwards.
The punch forces metal sheet into die cavity.
 Sheet metal working is a chipless manufacturing process.
 Material used-Galvanised iron, Stainless steel, copper,
Aluminium, Tin plate, Lead etc.
 Sheet metal Working

Metal cutting (shearing) Metal forming operation

operations (Sheet Metal is (Sheet Metal is stressed
stressed beyond Ultimate beyond Elastic limit or Yield
Strength) Point Stress but less than
1.Blanking Ultimate Strength)
2.Punching 1.Bending
3.Notching 2.Drawing and Deep Drawing
4.Perforating 3.Embossing
5.Slitting 4.Coining(Squeezing)
6.Lancing 5. Forming
7. Trimming
8. Piercing
 Sheet Metal Forming
 Shearing operation : Shearing is a sheet-metal cutting operation along a
straight line between two cutting edges.
 Used to cut large sheets into smaller sections.
 Upper blade is often inclined to reduce
required cutting force.
 Blanking : Blank is required portion of sheet metal. Hence Blanking is
process of cutting a required portion from sheet metal.
 Punching :Producing circular holes in the sheet metal. The circular holes are
scrap and remaining sheet is required portion.
 Piercing Producing non-circular holes in the sheet metal. The non-circular
holes are scrap and remaining sheet is required portion.
 In punching, punch size is made equal to hole size and clearance is provided
on die size
 In blanking, die size is made equal to blank size and clearance is provided
on punch.

Notching :Cutting and removal of Perforating :Producing/ cutting

some area (of any shape) from multiple holes (of any shape) in
edge. regular fashion .
 Slitting
Method of producing an incomplete
hole or blank on the edge of the sheet
is called slitting
Trimming
It is used for cutting unwanted excess
material from periphery of a previously
formed work piece.
Lancing
Method of producing an incomplete hole
or incomplete blank in the centre of
sheet and then bending the cut portion
Shaving
In blanking or punching operation edge
of the blank or the hole is not perfectly
clean because of burr generated in the
shearing process. For the close tolerance
work the blanking or punching process
is followed by shaving.
 Sheet Metal Working
• Forming : Forming is process of shaping a flat sheet metal surface into
desired curved profile. Sheet metal plastically deforms to take the shape of
cavity formed between punch and die.
 In forming process shape of punch and die surface is directly reproduced
on sheet metal.
 Forming is used for producing automobile and air craft body parts, steel
furniture, toys, Jewelry, etc.
 Sheet Metal Working
 Bending : Bending is sheet-metal forming process in which the
straight metal sheet is transformed into curved shape.
 During the bending operation, the metal on the inside of the
neutral plane is compressed, while the metal on the outside is
stretched.
 The metal is plastically deformed so that the bend takes a
permanent set upon removal of the stresses that caused it.
 There can be some amount of elastic recovery of sheet metal after
punch is removed, this phenomenon is known as Spring back
effect.
 Sheet Metal Working
 V-bending - performed with a V-shaped die.
 Included angles ranging from very
obtuse to very acute.
 Used for low-production operations.

 Edge bending - performed with a wiping die.

 Edge bending is limited to bends of 90° or less.

A pressure pad is used to apply a

force to hold the base of the part
against the die, while the punch
forces the part to yield and bend
over the edge of the die.
 Sheet Metal Working
• Drawing : Drawing is process of producing a cup-shaped parts, box-
shaped, or other complex-curved and concave parts from flat sheet
metal by plastic flow of metal sheet into clearance (gap) between
punch and die.
• Drawing process is called deep drawing when length (or depth) of
formed cup is greater than its dia.
• Wire drawing is (cold working ) process of producing wires by
pulling metal rod through number of stages. Material should have
good ductility.
• Common parts made by drawing include beverage cans, sinks,
cooking pots and automobile body panels.
Example of Drawing Process
Can Manufacture

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Can Manufacture

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Can Manufacture

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 Sheet Metal Working
• Coining or Squeezing : Under very high compressive load, metal
flows into cavity of punch and die.
 Example : Manufacturing of Coins, Medals etc.

• Embossing : Process of producing of impression of letters, numbers

or designs on metal sheet.
 Example : Name plates, part number
 Sheet Metal Working
• Applications : - Automobile and truck body parts, Airplanes body parts,
railway-locomotives bodies, Steel furniture, Farm and construction
equipment, Appliances bodies, Beverage cans, Utensils, etc.
 Forging
 Forging is a deformation process in which the metal or alloy is first heated
and then plastically deformed to the desired size and shape by application of
compressed force using a hand hammer, a power hammer or a press.
 In forging process, the material is heated to a temperature at which its
elastic properties completely disappears. (Forging temperature)
 At forging temperature, the material become soft and obey the law of plastic
flow. When the compressed force is applied on the material at forging
temperature, it plastically deforms in the direction of least resistance
without fracture.
 Materials used for forging: Must be ductile material. (low and medium
carbon steels, alloy steels, stainless steels, copper alloys, aluminum alloys
etc.)
 Applications -
1. Car axles, crankshafts, connecting rods, leaf springs, crane hooks, jet engine
turbine dies and blades.
2. Levers, flanges, propellers, hollow bodies, railway wheel disks, tank
bottoms.
3. Aircraft and rocket parts, knife blades, bolts, nuts, washers, collars, gear
blanks, etc
 Working Principal
 In forging process, the material (billet) is
deformed into the desired shape between
two parts called dies. The shape of the dies
matches with desired shape of the forged
component.
 The forging press shown in figure consists of
a lower die fixed to the frame (Anvil) while
upper die is connected to the ram. The hot
material is kept on the lower die.
 In mechanical press the ram is driven by the
crank shaft through the connecting rod
where as in hydraulic press the ram is driven
by the hydraulic cylinder.
 During the downward stroke of the ram, the
upper die exerts sudden compressive force
on the hot material. Due to this sudden
compressive force the hot material is
converted into the desired shape
 Advantages of Forging :
 Forging process gives high dimensional accuracy and good surface finish.
 As the forging process gives high dimensional accuracy it reduces the material
removal during machining and finishing operations.
 This process reduces the grain size, which results in improving the strength and
toughness of the forged components.
 It produces components without shrinkage cavities, blow holes and machining
scratches which increases the endurance strength of the parts.
 Forged components offer better resistance to shock and vibrations.
 Welding of forged parts is easier.
 Limitations:
 Brittle material like cast iron can not be forged.
 Difficult to produce complex components with intricate shapes by forging
process.
 Normal forged components cost more than cast components.
 The cost of forged dies is high.
 Forging process is mostly suitable for mass production.
 More noise and vibrations are produced during the process
 Classification of Forging
 According to Type of Dies
 Open Die Forging: The required shape and
size of component is obtained by changing
the position of component in between
blows . The force apply in open die forging
is only drop hammer type of force.
 Closed Die Forging: The required shape and
size of component is same as that of shape Open Die Forging
and size of die used

Impression Die Forging Flashless Forging

 Classification of Forging
 According to Mode of Application of Compressive Force
 Hand Forging: It is the process of
deforming the hot material or work piece
into desired shape by applying repeated
blows of hand held hammer. Type of load
application is only impact load

 Drop forging: It is the process of

deforming the hot material or work piece
into a desired shape by raising the die with
the help of arrangement like pneumatic
cylinder and allowing it to fall so as to
impart the blow or impact on the material.
In this process the lower die is fixed to the
frame while the upper die is attached to the
ram which reciprocates in a guide. The ram
is connected to the piston through the
piston rod.
 Classification of Forging
 According to Mode of Application of Compressive Force
 Press Forging: It is the process of deforming
the hot material or work piece into a desired
shape by slow squeezing action. The gradual
motion of the upper die transfers the
compressive force uniformly and gradually to the
hot material so as to deform it to the desired
shape. Unlike hand forging and drop forging
processes, in press forging process there is no
blow or impact.

 Upset or Machine Forging : It is used to

force the end of heated bar into desired shape.
Bar is heated , clamped and upset into the die
opening. It is done in a horizontal machine.
Portion of bar project beyond the die . A ram is
hammered at the project portion.
 Classification of Forging
 According to Metal Working Temperature
 Hot Forging (Hot Working) Process: Mechanical working of
metals (deformation of material into predetermined shape) above its re-
crystallization temperature but below melting point is known as hot
forging or hot working.
 Recrystallization temperature: It is the minimum temperature at which
formation of new crystals has been completed.
When material is heated the energy is absorbed by the grains. Grain
changes the behaviour and formed the new grains.
If hot working is computed near to recrystallization temp. grain size will
remain the same as that of the original grain size. So no change in
mechanical properties.
If hot working is computed above recrystallization temp. grain size is
greater than the original and forced grains are formed and increase in the
ductility and toughness and reduction in the hardness and strength.
The average temperature necessary for steel components is 1100 °C to
1200 °C.
The average temperature necessary for aluminium alloys components is
350 °C to 525 °C.
Advantages :
 Due to hot working, no residual stresses are introduced in the metal.
 Hot working refines grain structure and improves physical properties of the
metal.
 Any impurities in the metal are disintegrated and distributed throughout the
metal.
 Porosity of the metal is minimized by hot working.
 During hot working, as the metal is in the plastic state, larger deformation can
be accomplished and more rapidly.
 Shear stress gets reduced at higher temp. so hot working requires much less
force to achieve necessary deformation.
Limitations:
 As hot working is carried out at high temperatures, a rapid oxidation or scale
formation takes place on the metal surface which leads to poor surface finish
and loss of metal.
 Because of thermal expansion of metals , dimensional accuracy in hot working is
difficult to achieve.
 Close tolerances cannot be obtained.
 Hot working involves excessive expenditure on account of high tooling cost.
 Classification of Forging
 According to Metal Working Temperature
 Cold Forging (Cold Working) Process: Mechanical working of
metals (deformation of material into predetermined shape) below its
recrystallization temp. It is carried at room temp.
Cold working increases strength and hardness due to presence of strain
hardening.
It is preferred for the soft the material like Aluminium.
 Advantages :
 Better dimensional control is possible because there is not much reduction in
size.
 Surface finish of the component is better because no oxidation takes place
during the process.
 Strength and hardness of metal are increased.
 It is an ideal method for increasing hardness of those metals which do not
respond to heat treatment.

 Limitations:
 Ductility of the metal is decreased during the process.
 Only ductile metals can be shaped through cold working.
 Over-working of metal results in brittleness and it has to be annealed to remove
this brittleness.
 To remove the residual stresses setup during the process, subsequent heat
treatment is mostly required.
 Parameter Hot Working Cold Working
Definition The process is carried out above The process is carried out below
recrystallization temperature. recrystallization temperature.
Force and Energy Force and energy requirement is Force and energy requirement is
Requirement less high
Surface Finish Due to oxidation and scaling No chances of oxidation, so
poor surface finish is obtained. better surface finish is obtained.
Dimensional Dimensional accuracy of the Dimensional accuracy of the
Accuracy component produced is poor component is good
Strain Harding Effect Strain hardening effect absent Strain hardening effect present
Effect on Grain Grain structure is refined during Grain structure disturbed
structure the process. (distorted) during the process.
Effect on Material Grain structure refinement Strength and the hardness of the
results in improved Mechanical component is higher
Properties like ductility and
toughness
Residual Stresses in Residual stresses are absent Residual stresses are present
Components
Forged Parts
 Metal Joining Processes
• The term joining is generally used for a permanent joint
between the parts that cannot easily be separated.
• Joining is an all-inclusive term covering processes such as
welding, brazing, soldering, adhesive bonding, and mechanical
fastening.

• Welding is a process of joining two or more parts together at

their contacting surfaces by a application of heat and/or
filler material with/without pressure.
• Welding process needs three input elements:
1) Heat (Essential) 2) Pressure (Optional )
3) Filler material (Optional )

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 Welding Process
• Welding processes are mainly classified as :
 Fusion welding : In Fusion-welding process two metal parts to be
joined together are locally heated to a molten stage and allowed to
solidify to make the joint. External pressure is not applied. Filler
metal is required for better bonding.
 Example : Electric Arc Welding (SMAW- Shielded Metal Arc Welding,
TIG- Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding MIG - Metal Inert Gas Welding, Carbon
Arc Welding)
 Gas Welding

 Solid state (Pressure) welding : In Solid-state welding process two

metal parts to be joined together are heated to plastic stage and
forced together by external pressure to make the joint. Filler material
is not required for welding.
 Example : Resistance Welding (Spot Welding, Seam Welding, Projection
Welding)
 Forge Welding (Hand Forging) 5/2/2019 40
 Welding Process
• Applications :
 Construction, such as buildings and bridges;
 Piping, pressure vessels, boilers, and storage tanks;
 Shipbuilding, aircraft and aerospace;
 Furniture, door frames, window grills etc.
 Automotive and railroad.

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 Electric Arc Welding
• Arc welding is a fusion-welding process in which joining of the
metals is achieved by the heat of an electric arc between an
electrode and work.
 An electric arc is a discharge of electric current across a gap in a circuit.
 To initiate the arc, the electrode is brought into contact with the work and
then quickly separated from it by a short distance. The electric energy
from the arc thus produces temperatures of 3500 °C or higher.
 Filler metal (if required) is added during the operation.
 A pool of molten metal, consisting of base metal(s) and filler is formed. As
electrode is moved along the joint, the molten weld pool solidifies.

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 Arc Shielding
• At the high temperatures in arc welding, the metals being joined are
chemically reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in the air.
• The mechanical properties of weld joint are degraded by these
reactions.
• Some means to shield the arc from the surrounding air is provided.
• Arc shielding is accomplished by covering the electrode tip, arc, and
molten weld pool with a blanket of inert gas or flux.
• Common shielding gases : Argon, Helium, Carbon dioxide, etc.
 Additional functions: (1) Removes contaminates like dirt, dust from work
piece, (2) Cools the electrode.
• A flux is a substance used to prevent the formation of oxides and
other unwanted contaminants, or to dissolve them and facilitate
removal.
 Additional functions: (1) provide a protective atmosphere for welding,
(2) stabilize the arc, and (3) reduce spattering. 5/2/2019 43
Electric Arc Welding

15 to 45V
30 to 300A

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 Soldering and Brazing
 Brazing and soldering both use filler metals to join and bond two (or more)
metal parts to provide a permanent joint.
 It is difficult to disassemble the parts after a brazed or soldered joint has
been made.
 A filler metal is added in brazing and soldering; however, no melting of the
base metals occurs.
 Brazing or Soldering is used when :
 The metals have poor weld ability
 Dissimilar metals are to be joined
 No melting of base metal
 The geometry of joint does not lend itself to any of welding methods.
 High strength is not a requirement.
 Brazing
• Brazing is a joining process in which a filler metal is melted and
distributed by capillary action between the faying surfaces of the metal
parts being joined.
• The filler materials used are alloys of copper, silver or nickel.
• In brazing the filler metal has a melting temperature that is above 450 ˚ C but
below the melting point of the base.
• Applications : automotive (e.g., joining tubes and pipes), electrical
equipment (e.g., joining wires and cables), cutting tools (e.g., brazing
cemented carbide inserts to shanks), and jewelry making.
 Soldering
• Soldering is similar to brazing in which a filler metal with melting point
not exceeding 450˚C is melted and distributed by capillary action
between the faying surfaces of the metal parts being joined.
• As an industrial process, soldering is most closely associated with electronics
assembly.
 Brazing and Soldering Comparison
Parameter Brazing Soldering

Temperature Above 450°C Below 450 C

Filler Material Alloys of copper, silver, Tin-lead alloys, alloys of

nickel. antimony, zinc and aluminium

Surface finish Good Moderate

Strength of joint Lower than welding but Very low

relatively good
 Comparison of Welding, Brazing &
Soldering
Parameter Welding Brazing Soldering
Temperature > 1500 °C Above 450 °C Below 450 °C

Melting of Yes No No
workpiece

By electrical Gas flame of in Gas flame or

Heating of energy or gas electrical
workpiece flame furnace soldering iron

High Less than welded Very low.

Strength of joint joint

Surface finish Not very good Good Not very good

Cost Costly Costly Cheap

Similar metals Similar or Similar or

Base metals dissimilar metals dissimilar metals