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Work done by
falling weights = The Mechanical
mgh Equivalent of Heat was
found to be 4.2 Joules of
mechanical work per
calorie of heat produced
4.2 J/cal
A 10 kg cinder block is dropped 50 meters. How many calories of heat will
it develop if dropped into 1000 kg water?
conduction
convection
Modes of Heat Transfer
Conduction - diffusion of heat due to temperature gradient
Convection - when heat is carried away by moving fluid
Radiation - emission of energy by electromagnetic waves
qconvection
qradiation
qconduction
Typical Design Problems
To determine:
overall heat transfer coefficient - e.g., for a car radiator
highest (or lowest) temperature in a system - e.g., in a gas turbine
temperature distribution (related to thermal stress) - e.g., in the walls of a
spacecraft
Q T T units for q
q kT k are W/m2
A x y
where k = thermal conductivity
in general, k = k(x,y,z,T,…)
temperature profile
dT
heat conduction in a slab dx
1
hot wall cold wall
x
Thermal Properties
Conductance (c)
It indicates the amount of heat that passes through a given thickness of material;
Conductance= thermal conductivity / thickness
1 Cold Chamber
2 Freeze Fan
3 Thermo- Couples (3 unit) [cold chamber]
4 Thermo- couples (9 unit) [Surface]
5 Wall specimen (1.2 x 1.2 m)
6 Thermo- couples (9 unit) [Surface]
7 Hot Chamber
8 Thermo- Couples (3 unit) [hot chamber]
9 Heather Fan
Thermal Resistance (RSI for metric unit, R for US units)
It is that property of a material that resist the flow of heat
through the material. It is the reciprocal of conductance;
R= 1/c
Fourier’s Law
• A rate equation that allows determination of the conduction heat flux
from knowledge of the temperature distribution in a medium
• Its most general (vector) form for multidimensional conduction is:
q k T
Implications:
– Heat transfer is in the direction of decreasing temperature
(basis for minus sign).
– Fourier’s Law serves to define the thermal conductivity of the
medium k q / T
– Direction of heat transfer is perpendicular to lines of constant
temperature (isotherms).
– Heat flux vector may be resolved into orthogonal components.
Heat Flux Components
• Cartesian Coordinates: T x, y, z
T T T
q k i k jk k (2.3)
x y z
qx qy qz
• Cylindrical Coordinates: T r , , z
T T T
q k i k jk k (2.18)
r r z
qr q qz
• Spherical Coordinates: T r , ,
T T T
q k i k jk k (2.21)
r r r sin
qr q q
Heat Flux Components (cont.)
– Cylinder
qr Ar qr 2 rLqr
or,
qr Ar qr 2 rqr
– Sphere
qr Ar qr 4 r 2 qr
Heat Equation
T T T • T
k z k z q c p
(2.13)
k
x x y y t
Net transfer of thermal energy into the Thermal energy Change in thermal
control volume (inflow-outflow) generation energy storage
Generalized Heat Diffusion Equation
If we perform a heat balance on a small volume of material…
T
c k T q
2
t
rate of change heat cond. heat
of temperature in/out generation
k
thermal diffusivity
c
Heat Equation (Radial Systems)
• Cylindrical Coordinates:
1 T 1 T T • T
kr k k q c (2.20)
r r r r 2 z z
p
t
• Spherical Coordinates:
1 2 T 1 T 1 T • T
kr k k sin q c (2.33)
r r 2 sin 2 r 2 sin
p
r 2 r t
Heat Equation (Special Case)
2T 1 T
x 2 t
k
thermal diffusivity of the medium
c p
Boundary Conditions
T 0, t Ts
T T
k |x 0 qs |x 0 0
x x
Convection
T
k |x 0 h T T 0, t
x
Boundary Conditions
Heat transfer boundary conditions generally come in three types:
q = 20 W/m2
specified heat flux
Neumann condition
q = h(Tamb-Tbody)
T = 300K external heat transfer
specified temperature Tbody coefficient
Dirichlet condition Robin condition
Properties
Thermophysical Properties
Thermal Conductivity: A measure of a material’s ability to transfer thermal
energy by conduction.
Property Tables:
Solids: Tables A.1 – A.3
Gases: Table A.4
Liquids: Tables A.5 – A.7
Conduction Analysis
• Applications:
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Objectives
When you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Understand multidimensionality and time dependence of heat transfer,
and the conditions under which a heat transfer problem can be
approximated as being one-dimensional,
Obtain the differential equation of heat conduction in various
coordinate systems, and simplify it for steady one-dimensional case,
Identify the thermal conditions on surfaces, and express them
mathematically as boundary and initial conditions,
Solve one-dimensional heat conduction problems and obtain the
temperature distributions within a medium and the heat flux,
Analyze one-dimensional heat conduction in solids that involve heat
generation, and
Evaluate heat conduction in solids with temperature-dependent
thermal conductivity.
Introduction
Although heat transfer and temperature are closely related, they are of a
different nature.
Temperature has only magnitude
it is a scalar quantity.
Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude
it is a vector quantity.
We work with a coordinate system and indicate direction with plus or minus
signs.
Introduction ─ Continue
The driving force for any form of heat transfer is the
temperature difference.
The larger the temperature difference, the larger the
rate of heat transfer.
Three prime coordinate systems:
rectangular (T(x, y, z, t)) ,
cylindrical (T(r, , z, t)),
spherical (T(r, , , t)).
Introduction ─ Continue
Classification of conduction heat transfer problems:
steady versus transient heat transfer,
multidimensional heat transfer,
heat generation.
Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer
Steady implies no change with time at any point
within the medium
Eelement
Qx Qx x Egen,element
t
(2-6)
Eelement
Qx Qx x Egen ,element (2-6)
t
Eelement
Qr Qr r Egen,element
t
(2-18)
Eelement
Qr Qr r Egen,element (2-18)
t
1 2 T T
Variable conductivity: r k egen c (2-30)
r r
2
r t
1 2 T egen 1 T
Constant conductivity: r (2-31)
r r r k
2
t
General Heat Conduction Equation
Three-
dimensional
2T 2T 2T egen
2 2 0 (2-40)
1) Steady-state: x 2
y z k
2T 2T 2T 1 T
2) Transient, no heat generation: 2 2 (2-41)
x 2
y z t
2T 2T 2T
3) Steady-state, no heat generation: 2 2 2 0 (2-42)
x y z
Cylindrical Coordinates
1 T 1 T T T T
rk 2 k k egen c
r r r r z z t
(2-43)
Spherical Coordinates
1 2 T 1 T 1 T T
kr 2 2 k 2 k sin egen c
r r
2
r r sin r sin t
(2-44)
Boundary and Initial Conditions
Specified Temperature Boundary Condition
Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
Convection Boundary Condition
Radiation Boundary Condition
Interface Boundary Conditions
Generalized Boundary Conditions
Specified Temperature Boundary
Condition
For one-dimensional heat transfer
through a plane wall of thickness
L, for example, the specified
temperature boundary conditions
can be expressed as
T(0, t) = T1
T(L, t) = T2 (2-46)
k
T (0, t )
0 or
T (0, t )
0 2
T L , t
0
x x x
(2-49) (2-50)
Convection Boundary Condition
T (0, t )
k h1 T1 T (0, t ) (2-51a)
x
and
T ( L, t )
k h2 T ( L, t ) T 2 (2-51b)
x
Radiation Boundary Condition
T (0, t )
k 1 Tsurr
4
T (0, t ) 4
(2-52a)
x
,1
and
T ( L, t )
k 2 T ( L, t ) 4 Tsurr
4
,2
(2-52b)
x
Interface Boundary Conditions
At the interface the requirements are:
(1) two bodies in contact must have the same
temperature at the area of contact,
(2) an interface (which is a
surface) cannot store any
energy, and thus the heat flux
on the two sides of an
interface must be the same.
TA(x0, t) = TB(x0, t) (2-53)
and
TA ( x0 , t ) T ( x , t )
k A k B B 0 (2-54)
x x
Generalized Boundary Conditions
In general a surface may involve convection, radiation,
and specified heat flux simultaneously. The boundary
condition in such cases is again obtained from a surface
energy balance, expressed as
Heat transfer Heat transfer
to the surface
in all modes
= from the surface
In all modes
egenV
Ts T (2-66)
hAs
Heat Generation in Solids -The Surface
Temperature
For a large plane wall of thickness 2L (As=2Awall and
V=2LAwall)
egen L
Ts , plane wall T (2-67)
h
For a long solid cylinder of radius r0 (As=2r0L and
V=r02L) egen r0
Ts ,cylinder T (2-68)
2h
For a solid sphere of radius r0 (As=4r02 and V=4/3r03)
egen r0
Ts ,sphere T (2-69)
3h
Heat Generation in Solids -The maximum
Temperature in a Cylinder (the Centerline)
The heat generated within an inner
cylinder must be equal to the heat
conducted through its outer surface.
dT
kAr egenVr (2-70)
dr
Substituting these expressions into the above equation
and separating the variables, we get
dT egen
k 2 rL egen r L dT
2
rdr
dr 2k
Integrating from r =0 where T(0) =T0 to r=ro
egen r02
Tmax,cylinder T0 Ts (2-71)
4k
Variable Thermal Conductivity, k(T)
The thermal conductivity of a
material, in general, varies with
temperature.
An average value for the
thermal conductivity is
commonly used when the
variation is mild.
This is also common practice
for other temperature-
dependent properties such as
the density and specific heat.
Variable Thermal Conductivity for
One-Dimensional Cases
When the variation of thermal conductivity with
temperature k(T) is known, the average value of the thermal
conductivity in the temperature range between T1 and T2
can be determined from T
2
k (T )dT
kave
T1 (2-75)
T2 T1
The variation in thermal conductivity of a material
with can often be approximated as a linear function
and expressed as
k (T ) k0 (1 T ) (2-79)