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Heat Transfer

Heat transfer and its applications.


 Practically all the operations carried out by chemical involve the
production or absorption of energy in the form of heat .
 The laws governing the transfer of heat and the type of apparatus that
have for their main object the control of heat flow are therefore of
great importance.

Examples are ubiquitous:


•heat flows in the body
•home heating/cooling systems
•refrigerators, ovens, other appliances
•automobiles, power plants, the sun,
etc.
Heat
 A form of energy associated with the motion of atoms or molecules.

 Transferred from higher temperature objects to objects at a lower


temperature.
The calorie had been defined as the amount of heat it takes to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree C.
James Prescott Joule use his device below to find out how much work you
would have to do to create a calorie of heat.

Work done by
falling weights = The Mechanical
mgh Equivalent of Heat was
found to be 4.2 Joules of
mechanical work per
calorie of heat produced
4.2 J/cal
A 10 kg cinder block is dropped 50 meters. How many calories of heat will
it develop if dropped into 1000 kg water?

SAT2: How much will


the water’s temperature
go up?

Pool of water Pool of water Pool of water


Heat Transfer
There are 3 ways that heat can move from one place to another:
radiation

conduction

convection
Modes of Heat Transfer
 Conduction - diffusion of heat due to temperature gradient
 Convection - when heat is carried away by moving fluid
 Radiation - emission of energy by electromagnetic waves

qconvection

qradiation

qconduction
Typical Design Problems

 To determine:
 overall heat transfer coefficient - e.g., for a car radiator
 highest (or lowest) temperature in a system - e.g., in a gas turbine
 temperature distribution (related to thermal stress) - e.g., in the walls of a
spacecraft

 temperature response in time dependent heating/cooling problems - e.g.,


how long does it take to cool down a case of soda?
Conduction Heat Transfer
 Conduction is the transfer of heat by molecular interaction
 In a gas, molecular velocity depends on temperature
 hot, energetic molecules collide with neighbors, increasing their speed
 In solids, the molecules and the lattice structure vibrate
II. Unsteady-state conduction
T is a function of both location and
time: T=f(x,t)

III Steady state conduction


T is only function of location,
constant temperature distribution
H = the Rate of Heat Flow through a conductor
Unit:
H = Q/T = k A T Joules/sec or
Temperature Watts
difference
Thermal Conductivity d
thickness
Cross-sectional area
Fourier’s Law
 “heat flux is proportional to temperature gradient”

Q  T T  units for q
 q  kT  k    are W/m2
A  x y 
 where k = thermal conductivity
 in general, k = k(x,y,z,T,…)
temperature profile
dT
heat conduction in a slab dx
1
hot wall cold wall

x
Thermal Properties

Thermal Conductivity (k)


 It is the term used to indicate the amount of heat that will pass through a unit of
area of a material at a temperature difference of one degree.
 The lower the “k” value, the better the insulation qualities of the material.

Units; US: (Btu.in) / (h.ft2.oF)


Metric: W / (m.oC)

Conductance (c)
 It indicates the amount of heat that passes through a given thickness of material;
 Conductance= thermal conductivity / thickness

Units; US: Btu / (h.ft2.oF)


Metric: W/ (m2.oC)
Example:
Determination of Thermal Conductivity Coefficient for
Different Wall Systems (TS EN ISO 8990)

1 Cold Chamber
2 Freeze Fan
3 Thermo- Couples (3 unit) [cold chamber]
4 Thermo- couples (9 unit) [Surface]
5 Wall specimen (1.2 x 1.2 m)
6 Thermo- couples (9 unit) [Surface]
7 Hot Chamber
8 Thermo- Couples (3 unit) [hot chamber]
9 Heather Fan
Thermal Resistance (RSI for metric unit, R for US units)
 It is that property of a material that resist the flow of heat
through the material. It is the reciprocal of conductance;
R= 1/c

Thermal Transmittance (U)


 It is the amount of heat that passes through all the materials in a
system. It is the reciprocal of the total resistance;
U= 1/Rt

 Table 1 lists a few of the common materials and their thermal


properties;
Table 6.1 Thermal properties of
materials
a
Thermal Resistance Thermal Conductivity
RSI R K (SI) K (US customary)
Brick, clay, 4 in (100 mm) 0.07 0.42 1.43 9.52
Built-up roofing 0.08 0.44
Concrete block, 8 in (200 mm):
Cinder 0.30 1.72 0.67 4.65
Lightweight aggregate 0.35 2.00 0.57 4.00
Glass, clear, ¼ in (6 mm) 0.16 0.91 0.04 0.27
Gypsum sheating, ½ in (12.5 mm) 0.08 0.43 0.16 1.16
Insulation, per 1 in (25 mm):
Fiberboard 0.49 2.80 0.051 0.36
Glass Fiber 0.52 2.95 0.048 0.34
Expanded Polystyrene 0.75 4.23 0.033 0.24
Rigid urethane 1.05 6.00 0.024 0.17
Vermiculite 0.36 2.08 0.069 0.48
Wood shavings 0.42 2.44 0.060 0.41
Moving air 0.03 0.17
Particle board, ½ in (12.5 mm) 0.11 0.62 0.114 0.81
Plywood, softwood, ¾ in (19 mm) 0.17 0.97 0.112 0.77
Stucco, ¾ in (19 mm) 0.02 0.11 0.95 6.82
Variable Thermal Conductivity, k(T)
 The thermal conductivity of a
material, in general, varies with
temperature.
 An average value for the
thermal conductivity is
commonly used when the
variation is mild.
 This is also common practice
for other temperature-
dependent properties such as
the density and specific heat.
Variable Thermal Conductivity for
One-Dimensional Cases
When the variation of thermal conductivity with
temperature k(T) is known, the average value of the thermal
conductivity in the temperature range between T1 and T2
can be determined from T

2
k (T )dT
kave 
T1 (2-75)
T2  T1
The variation in thermal conductivity of a material
with can often be approximated as a linear function
and expressed as
k (T )  k0 (1   T ) (2-79)

 the temperature coefficient of thermal conductivity.


Variable Thermal Conductivity
 For a plane wall the
temperature varies linearly
during steady one-
dimensional heat conduction
when the thermal conductivity
is constant.
 This is no longer the case
when the thermal conductivity
changes with temperature
(even linearly).
Let’s try a sample problem using:
H = Q/T = k A T
d
A steel slab 5 cm thick is used as a firewall, measuring 3 m x 4 m. If a fire burns at
800 C on one side of a wall, how fast will heat flow through the metal door. (The
conductivity of steel is 46 Watts/m•K)
Fourier’s Law
and the
Heat Equation
Fourier’s Law

Fourier’s Law
• A rate equation that allows determination of the conduction heat flux
from knowledge of the temperature distribution in a medium
• Its most general (vector) form for multidimensional conduction is:
 
q    k  T
Implications:
– Heat transfer is in the direction of decreasing temperature
(basis for minus sign).
– Fourier’s Law serves to define the thermal conductivity of the
 
medium  k   q /  T 
 
 
– Direction of heat transfer is perpendicular to lines of constant
temperature (isotherms).
– Heat flux vector may be resolved into orthogonal components.
Heat Flux Components

• Cartesian Coordinates: T  x, y, z 
 T  T  T 
q  k i k jk k (2.3)
x y z
qx qy qz

• Cylindrical Coordinates: T  r ,  , z 
 T  T  T 
q    k i k jk k (2.18)
r r  z
qr q qz

• Spherical Coordinates: T  r ,  , 
 T  T  T 
q  k i k jk k (2.21)
r r  r sin  
qr q q
Heat Flux Components (cont.)

• In angular coordinates  or  ,  , the temperature gradient is still


based on temperature change over a length scale and hence has
units of C/m and not C/deg.
• Heat rate for one-dimensional, radial conduction in a cylinder or sphere:

– Cylinder
qr  Ar qr  2 rLqr
or,
qr  Ar qr  2 rqr

– Sphere
qr  Ar qr  4 r 2 qr
Heat Equation

The Heat Equation


• A differential equation whose solution provides the temperature distribution in
a stationary medium.
• Based on applying conservation of energy to a differential control volume
through which energy transfer is exclusively by conduction.
• Cartesian Coordinates:

  T    T    T  • T
  k   z  k z   q  c p
(2.13)
k
x  x  y  y    t

Net transfer of thermal energy into the Thermal energy Change in thermal
control volume (inflow-outflow) generation energy storage
Generalized Heat Diffusion Equation
 If we perform a heat balance on a small volume of material…

heat conduction T heat conduction


in q out

 … we get: heat generation

T
c  k T  q
2

t
rate of change heat cond. heat
of temperature in/out generation
k
  thermal diffusivity
c
Heat Equation (Radial Systems)

• Cylindrical Coordinates:

1   T  1   T    T  • T
 kr  k   k   q   c (2.20)
r r  r  r 2     z  z
p
 t

• Spherical Coordinates:

1   2 T  1   T  1   T  • T
 kr    k    k sin    q   c (2.33)
r  r 2 sin 2      r 2 sin     
p
r 2 r  t
Heat Equation (Special Case)

• One-Dimensional Conduction in a Planar Medium with Constant Properties


and No Generation

 2T 1 T

x 2  t

k
  thermal diffusivity of the medium
c p
Boundary Conditions

Boundary and Initial Conditions


• For transient conduction, heat equation is first order in time, requiring
specification of an initial temperature distribution: T  x, t t 0  T  x,0
• Since heat equation is second order in space, two boundary conditions
must be specified. Some common cases:
Constant Surface Temperature:

T  0, t   Ts

Constant Heat Flux:


Applied Flux Insulated Surface

T T
k |x  0  qs |x  0  0
x x

Convection

T
k |x  0  h T  T  0, t  
x
Boundary Conditions
 Heat transfer boundary conditions generally come in three types:

q = 20 W/m2
specified heat flux
Neumann condition

q = h(Tamb-Tbody)
T = 300K external heat transfer
specified temperature Tbody coefficient
Dirichlet condition Robin condition
Properties

Thermophysical Properties
Thermal Conductivity: A measure of a material’s ability to transfer thermal
energy by conduction.

Thermal Diffusivity: A measure of a material’s ability to respond to changes


in its thermal environment.

Property Tables:
Solids: Tables A.1 – A.3
Gases: Table A.4
Liquids: Tables A.5 – A.7
Conduction Analysis

Methodology of a Conduction Analysis


• Solve appropriate form of heat equation to obtain the temperature
distribution.

• Knowing the temperature distribution, apply Fourier’s Law to obtain the


heat flux at any time, location and direction of interest.

• Applications:

Chapter 3: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction


Chapter 4: Two-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
Chapter 5: Transient Conduction
Chapter 2: Heat Conduction
Equation

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Objectives
When you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to:
 Understand multidimensionality and time dependence of heat transfer,
and the conditions under which a heat transfer problem can be
approximated as being one-dimensional,
 Obtain the differential equation of heat conduction in various
coordinate systems, and simplify it for steady one-dimensional case,
 Identify the thermal conditions on surfaces, and express them
mathematically as boundary and initial conditions,
 Solve one-dimensional heat conduction problems and obtain the
temperature distributions within a medium and the heat flux,
 Analyze one-dimensional heat conduction in solids that involve heat
generation, and
 Evaluate heat conduction in solids with temperature-dependent
thermal conductivity.
Introduction
 Although heat transfer and temperature are closely related, they are of a
different nature.
 Temperature has only magnitude
it is a scalar quantity.
 Heat transfer has direction as well as magnitude
it is a vector quantity.
 We work with a coordinate system and indicate direction with plus or minus
signs.
Introduction ─ Continue
 The driving force for any form of heat transfer is the
temperature difference.
 The larger the temperature difference, the larger the
rate of heat transfer.
 Three prime coordinate systems:
 rectangular (T(x, y, z, t)) ,
 cylindrical (T(r, , z, t)),
 spherical (T(r, , , t)).
Introduction ─ Continue
Classification of conduction heat transfer problems:
 steady versus transient heat transfer,
 multidimensional heat transfer,
 heat generation.
Steady versus Transient Heat Transfer
 Steady implies no change with time at any point
within the medium

 Transient implies variation with time or time


dependence
Multidimensional Heat Transfer
 Heat transfer problems are also classified as being:
 one-dimensional,
 two dimensional,
 three-dimensional.
 In the most general case, heat transfer through a
medium is three-dimensional. However, some
problems can be classified as two- or one-dimensional
depending on the relative magnitudes of heat transfer
rates in different directions and the level of accuracy
desired.
 The rate of heat conduction through a medium in
a specified direction (say, in the x-direction) is
expressed by Fourier’s law of heat conduction
for one-dimensional heat conduction as:
dT
Qcond  kA (W) (2-1)
dx
 Heat is conducted in the direction
of decreasing temperature, and thus
the temperature gradient is negative
when heat is conducted in the positive x-
direction.
General Relation for Fourier’s Law of
Heat Conduction
 The heat flux vector at a point P on the surface of
the figure must be perpendicular to the surface,
and it must point in the direction of decreasing
temperature
 If n is the normal of the
isothermal surface at point P,
the rate of heat conduction at
that point can be expressed by
Fourier’s law as
dT
Qn  kA (W) (2-2)
dn
General Relation for Fourier’s Law of
Heat Conduction-Continue
 In rectangular coordinates, the heat conduction
vector can be expressed in terms of its components as
Qn  Qx i  Qy j  Qz k (2-3)
 which can be determined from Fourier’s law as
 T
Qx   kAx x

 T
Qy   kAy (2-4)
 y
 T
Qz  kAz
 z
Heat Generation
 Examples:
 electrical energy being converted to heat at a rate of I2R,
 fuel elements of nuclear reactors,
 exothermic chemical reactions.
 Heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon.
 The rate of heat generation units : W/m3 or Btu/h · ft3.
 The rate of heat generation in a medium may vary
with time as well as position within the medium.
 The total rate of heat generation in a medium of
volume V can be determined from
Egen   egen dV (W) (2-5)
V
One-Dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation - Plane Wall
Rate of heat Rate of heat Rate of heat Rate of change of
conduction - conduction + generation = the energy
at x at x+x inside the content of the
element element

Eelement
Qx Qx x  Egen,element 
t
(2-6)
Eelement
Qx  Qx x  Egen ,element  (2-6)
t

 The change in the energy content and the rate of heat


generation can be expressed as
 Eelement  Et t  Et  mc Tt t  Tt    cAx Tt t  Tt  (2-7)


 Egen,element  egenVelement  egen Ax (2-8)

 Substituting into Eq. 2–6, we get


Tt t  Tt (2-9)
Qx  Qx x egen Ax   cAx
t
• Dividing by Ax, taking the limit as x 0 and t 0,
and from Fourier’s law:
1   T  T
 kA 
 gen
e   c (2-11)
A x  x  t
The area A is constant for a plane wall  the one dimensional
transient heat conduction equation in a plane wall is
  T  T
Variable conductivity: k   egen   c (2-13)
x  x  t
 2T egen 1 T k
Constant conductivity:   ;  (2-14)
x 2
k  t c
The one-dimensional conduction equation may be reduces
to the following forms under special conditions
d 2T egen
1) Steady-state: 2
 0 (2-15)
dx k
 2T 1 T
2) Transient, no heat generation:  (2-16)
x 2
 t
d 2T
3) Steady-state, no heat generation: 2
0 (2-17)
dx
One-Dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation - Long Cylinder
Rate of heat Rate of heat Rate of heat Rate of change of
conduction - conduction + generation = the energy
at r at r+r inside the content of the
element element

Eelement
Qr Qr r  Egen,element 
t
(2-18)
Eelement
Qr  Qr r  Egen,element  (2-18)
t

• The change in the energy content and the rate of heat


generation can be expressed as
 Eelement  Et t  Et  mc Tt t  Tt    cAr Tt t  Tt  (2-19)


 Egen,element  egenVelement  egen Ar (2-20)

• Substituting into Eq. 2–18, we get


Tt t  Tt (2-21)
Qr  Qr r  egen Ar   cAr
t
• Dividing by Ar, taking the limit as r 0 and t 0,
and from Fourier’s law:
1   T  T
 kA 
 gen
e   c (2-23)
A r  r  t
Noting that the area varies with the independent variable r
according to A=2rL, the one dimensional transient heat
conduction equation in a plane wall becomes
1   T  T (2-25)
Variable conductivity:  rk 
 gen
e   c
r r  r  t
1   T  egen 1 T
Constant conductivity: r   (2-26)
r r  r  k  t
The one-dimensional conduction equation may be reduces
to the following forms under special conditions
1 d  dT  egen
1) Steady-state: r   0 (2-27)
r dr  dr  k
1   T  1 T
2) Transient, no heat generation: r  (2-28)
r r  r   t
d  dT 
3) Steady-state, no heat generation: r 0 (2-29)
dr  dr 
One-Dimensional Heat Conduction
Equation - Sphere

1   2 T  T
Variable conductivity: r k   egen   c (2-30)
r r 
2
r  t

1   2 T  egen 1 T
Constant conductivity: r   (2-31)
r r  r  k
2
 t
General Heat Conduction Equation

Rate of heat Rate of heat Rate of heat Rate of change


conduction - conduction + generation = of the energy
at x, y, and z at x+x, inside the content of the
y+y, and element element
z+z
Eelement
Qx  Qy  Qz Qxx  Qy y  Qz z  Egen ,element  (2-36)
t
Repeating the mathematical approach used for the one-
dimensional heat conduction the three-dimensional heat
conduction equation is determined to be
Two-dimensional

Constant conductivity:  2T  2T  2T egen 1 T


 2 2   (2-39)
x 2
y z k  t

Three-
dimensional
 2T  2T  2T egen
 2  2   0 (2-40)
1) Steady-state: x 2
y z k
 2T  2T  2T 1 T
2) Transient, no heat generation:  2 2  (2-41)
x 2
y z  t
 2T  2T  2T
3) Steady-state, no heat generation: 2  2  2  0 (2-42)
x y z
Cylindrical Coordinates

1   T  1 T  T    T  T
 rk  2 k  k   egen   c
r r  r  r     z  z  t
(2-43)
Spherical Coordinates

1   2 T  1   T  1   T  T
 kr  2 2 k  2  k sin    egen   c
r r 
2
r  r sin      r sin      t

(2-44)
Boundary and Initial Conditions
 Specified Temperature Boundary Condition
 Specified Heat Flux Boundary Condition
 Convection Boundary Condition
 Radiation Boundary Condition
 Interface Boundary Conditions
 Generalized Boundary Conditions
Specified Temperature Boundary
Condition
For one-dimensional heat transfer
through a plane wall of thickness
L, for example, the specified
temperature boundary conditions
can be expressed as
T(0, t) = T1
T(L, t) = T2 (2-46)

The specified temperatures can be constant, which is the


case for steady heat conduction, or may vary with time.
Specified Heat Flux Boundary
Condition
The heat flux in the positive x-
direction anywhere in the medium,
including the boundaries, can be
expressed by Fourier’s law of heat
conduction as
dT Heat flux in the
q  k  positive x- (2-47)
dx direction

The sign of the specified heat flux is determined by


inspection: positive if the heat flux is in the positive
direction of the coordinate axis, and negative if it is in
the opposite direction.
Two Special Cases

Insulated boundary Thermal symmetry

k
T (0, t )
0 or
T (0, t )
0  2 
T L , t
0
x x x
(2-49) (2-50)
Convection Boundary Condition

Heat conduction Heat convection


at the surface in
a
= at the surface in
the same
selected direction
direction

T (0, t )
k  h1 T1  T (0, t )  (2-51a)
x
and
T ( L, t )
k  h2 T ( L, t )  T 2  (2-51b)
x
Radiation Boundary Condition

Heat conduction Radiation


at the surface in
a
= exchange at the
surface in
selected the same
direction direction

T (0, t )
k  1 Tsurr
4
 T (0, t ) 4
 (2-52a)
x
,1

and
T ( L, t )
k   2 T ( L, t ) 4  Tsurr
4

,2 
(2-52b)
x
Interface Boundary Conditions
At the interface the requirements are:
(1) two bodies in contact must have the same
temperature at the area of contact,
(2) an interface (which is a
surface) cannot store any
energy, and thus the heat flux
on the two sides of an
interface must be the same.
TA(x0, t) = TB(x0, t) (2-53)
and
TA ( x0 , t ) T ( x , t )
k A  k B B 0 (2-54)
x x
Generalized Boundary Conditions
In general a surface may involve convection, radiation,
and specified heat flux simultaneously. The boundary
condition in such cases is again obtained from a surface
energy balance, expressed as
Heat transfer Heat transfer
to the surface
in all modes
= from the surface
In all modes

Heat Generation in Solids


The quantities of major interest in a medium with heat
generation are the surface temperature Ts and the
maximum temperature Tmax that occurs in the medium
in steady operation.
Heat Generation in Solids -The Surface
Temperature
Rate of Rate of
heat transfer
from the solid
= energy (2-63)
generation
within the solid
For uniform heat generation within the medium
Q  egenV (W) (2-64)
The heat transfer rate by convection can also be
expressed from Newton’s law of cooling as
- Q  hAs Ts  T  (W) (2-65)

egenV
Ts  T  (2-66)
hAs
Heat Generation in Solids -The Surface
Temperature
For a large plane wall of thickness 2L (As=2Awall and
V=2LAwall)
egen L
Ts , plane wall  T  (2-67)
h
For a long solid cylinder of radius r0 (As=2r0L and
V=r02L) egen r0
Ts ,cylinder  T  (2-68)
2h
For a solid sphere of radius r0 (As=4r02 and V=4/3r03)
egen r0
Ts ,sphere  T  (2-69)
3h
Heat Generation in Solids -The maximum
Temperature in a Cylinder (the Centerline)
The heat generated within an inner
cylinder must be equal to the heat
conducted through its outer surface.
dT
kAr  egenVr (2-70)
dr
Substituting these expressions into the above equation
and separating the variables, we get
 
dT egen
k  2 rL   egen  r L  dT  
2
rdr
dr 2k
Integrating from r =0 where T(0) =T0 to r=ro
egen r02
Tmax,cylinder  T0  Ts  (2-71)
4k
Variable Thermal Conductivity, k(T)
 The thermal conductivity of a
material, in general, varies with
temperature.
 An average value for the
thermal conductivity is
commonly used when the
variation is mild.
 This is also common practice
for other temperature-
dependent properties such as
the density and specific heat.
Variable Thermal Conductivity for
One-Dimensional Cases
When the variation of thermal conductivity with
temperature k(T) is known, the average value of the thermal
conductivity in the temperature range between T1 and T2
can be determined from T

2
k (T )dT
kave 
T1 (2-75)
T2  T1
The variation in thermal conductivity of a material
with can often be approximated as a linear function
and expressed as
k (T )  k0 (1   T ) (2-79)

 the temperature coefficient of thermal conductivity.


Variable Thermal Conductivity
 For a plane wall the
temperature varies linearly
during steady one-
dimensional heat conduction
when the thermal conductivity
is constant.
 This is no longer the case
when the thermal conductivity
changes with temperature
(even linearly).

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