Potential Locations for Confidentiality Attacks

•LAN is a broadcast network: Transmission from any station to any

other station is visible on the LAN medium to all stations

•So Eavesdropping by another employee is possible.

•Data are transmitted in the form of frames, with each frame

containing the source and destination address.

•An eavesdropper can monitor the traffic on the LAN and capture any
traffic desired on the basis of source and destination addresses.

•If part or all of the LAN is wireless, then the potential for
eavesdropping is greater.
Active attacks, the attacker needs to gain physical control of a portion
of the link and be able to insert and capture transmissions.

Passive attack, the attacker simply needs to be able to observe

transmissions

The communications links involved can be cable (telephone twisted pair,

coaxial cable, or optical fiber), microwave links, or satellite channels
Twisted pair and coaxial cable can be attacked using either invasive taps
or inductive devices that monitor electromagnetic waves

Link versus End-to-End Encryption

The powerful approach to securing the point is encryption. If encryption

is to be used to counter these attacks, then we need to decide what to
encrypt and where the encryption gear should be located
Link encryption and end-to-end encryption
end-to-end encryption, The encryption process is carried out at the two end
systems. The source host or terminal encrypts the data.
The data in encrypted form are then transmitted across the network to the
destination terminal . The destination shares a key with the source and so is able
to decrypt the data

link encryption, each vulnerable communications link is equipped on both ends

with an encryption device. Thus, all traffic over all communications links is
secured.
Blowfish is a keyed, symmetric block cipher Bruce Schneier and
included in a large number of cipher suites and encryption products.

Blowfish provides a good encryption rate in software and no effective

cryptanalysis of it has been found to date. However, the Advanced
Encryption Standard now receives more attention.

Blowfish, a new secret-key block cipher, is proposed. It is a Feistel

network, iterating a simple encryption function 16 times.

The block size is 64 bits, and the key can be any length up to 448
bits.

Blowfish has a 64-bit block size and a variable key length from 32
up to 448 bits. It is a 16-round Feistel cipher and uses large key-
dependent S-boxes
•Manipulates data in large blocks
• Has a 64-bit block size.
• Has a scalable key, from 32 bits to at least 256 bits.
• Uses simple operations that are efficient on microprocessors.

e.g., exclusive-or, addition, table lookup, modular- multiplication. It

does not use variable-length shifts or bit-wise permutations, or
conditional jumps.

Blowfish is a variable-length key, 64-bit block cipher. The

algorithm consists of two
parts: a key-expansion part and a data- encryption part. Key
expansion converts a key of at most 448 bits into several subkey
arrays totaling 4168 bytes.

Data encryption occurs via a 16-round Feistel network. Each round

consists of a keydependent
permutation, and a key- and data-dependent substitution. All
operations are
XORs and additions on 32-bit words.
The P-array consists of 18 32-bit subkeys:
P1, P2,..., P18.

There are four 32-bit S-boxes with 256 entries

each:
S1,0, S1,1,..., S1,255;
S2,0, S2,1,..,, S2,255;
S3,0, S3,1,..., S3,255;
S4,0, S4,1,..,, S4,255.
Encryption

Blowfish has 16 rounds.

The input is a 64-bit data element, x.
Divide x into two 32-bit halves: xL, xR.

Then, for i = 1 to 16:

xL = xL XOR Pi
xR = F(xL) XOR xR
Swap xL and xR
After the sixteenth round, swap xL and xR again to undo the last
swap.
Then, xR = xR XOR P17 and xL = xL XOR P18.

Finally, recombine xL and xR to get the ciphertext.

Decryption is exactly the same as encryption, except that P1, P2,...,

P18 are used in the reverse order.
• The fundamental operations were chosen with speed in mind. XOR,
ADD, and MOV
• from a cache are efficient on both Intel and Motorola architectures.
All subkeys fit in the
• cache of a 80486, 68040, Pentium, and PowerPC.

• The Feistel Network that makes up the body of Blowfish is

designed to be as simple as bpossible, while still retaining the
desirable cryptographic properties of the structure.
IDEA(International Data Encryption Algorithm)

IDEA is a block cipher which uses a 128-bit length key to

encrypt successive 64-bit blocks of plaintext.

The encryption scheme uses a total of fifty-two 16-bit

subkeys. These are generated from the 128-bit subkey as
follows: The 128-bit key is split into eight 16-bit keys which
are the first eight subkeys.

The digits of the 128-bit key are shifted 25 bits to the left to
make a new key which is split into the next eight 16-bit
subkeys
The encryption involves modular multiplication with a
modulus of ((2^16)+1) and addition with a modulus of (2^16).
The 64-bit plaintext block is split into four 16-bit segment which
we'll call p1, p2, p3 and p4. The subkeys are s1, s2, s3, s4
....s52.
The encryption consists of eight rounds with each round involving
the following steps:
p1 x s1 --> d1
p2 + s2 --> d2
p3 + s3 --> d3
p4 x s4 --> d4
d1 XOR d3 --> d5
d2 XOR d4 --> d6
d5 x s5 --> d7
d6 + d7 --> d8
d8 x s6 --> d9
d7 + d9 --> d10
d1 XOR d9 --> d11
d3 XOR d9 --> d12
d2 XOR d10 --> d13
d4 XOR d10 --> d14
After this process the output blocks d12, d13 are exchanged so that
d11, d13, d12 and d14 are used as input to the next round (in that
order) along with the next 6 subkeys, s7 to s12.

This procedure is followed for eight rounds in total giving four output
blocks which we'll call e1, e2, e3 and e4.

Four more steps using the last four subkeys complete the
encryption:
e1 x s49 --> c1
e2 + s50 --> c2
e3 + s51 --> c3
e4 x s52 --> c4
Design – Mixing operations from different algebraic groups

- XOR
- Addition modulo 216
- Multiplication modulo 216 + 1

Description of IDEA
64 bit sub blocks: p1, p2, p3, p4. 4 sub-block become the I/P to the first
round of the algorithm. There are 8 rounds total
Each round the four 4 sub blocks are XORed, added, and multiplied
with one another and with six 16 bit sub-keys

Between rounds the II and III subblocks are swapped

Speed – Twice as fast as DES. iDEA on a 33 MHz 386 machine

encrypts data at 880 KB / Sec
Cryptanalysis - Key length is 128 bits. Require 2128(1038)
encryption to recover the key

Design a chip can test a billion keys/second(take 1013 years)

Traffic Confidentiality
Knowledge about the number and length of messages between
nodes may enable an opponent to determine who is talking to
whom.
•Identities of partners

•How frequently the partners are communicating

•Message pattern, message length, or quantity of messages that

suggest important information is being exchanged

•The events that correlate with special conversations between

particular partners
master key A long-lasting key that is used between a KDC and a principal
for the purpose of encoding the transmission of session keys. Typically, the
master keys are distributed by noncryptographic means. Also referred to
as a key-encrypting key.

session key A temporary encryption key used between two principals.

such as a frame relay connection or transport connection, and then
discarded.

key distribution center A system that is authorized to transmit temporary

session keys to principals. Each session key is transmitted in encrypted
form, using a master key that the key distribution center shares with the
target principal.
Random Number Generation

•Random numbers play an important role in the use of encryption

for various network security applications.

•Reciprocal authentication schemes make use of Random numbers

•Session key generation, whether done by a key distribution center

or by one of the principals

•Generation of keys for the RSA public-key encryption algorithm

Two criteria are used to validate that a sequence of numbers is

random
1. Uniform distribution: The distribution of numbers in the
sequence should be uniform; that is, the frequency of occurrence of
each of the numbers should be approximately the same.

2. Independence: No one value in the sequence can be derived

from the others.