Optical Amplifier

• Optical Amplifier operates in the optical domain with

no interconversion of photon to electrons.
• Therefore instead of using regenerative repeaters
which requires optoelectronic devices for source and
detector, together with substantial electronic
circuitry for pulse slicing, retaining and shaping,
optical amplifiers are placed at interval along a fibre
link to provide linear amplification of the transmitted
optical signals.
• The optical Amplifiers provides a much simpler
solution in that it is a single in line component which
can be used for any kind modulation at virtually any
transmission link.

• Moreever,such devices can be bidirectional and if it is

sufficiently linear it may allow sufficient multiplex
operation of several signals at different optical
wavelength.
• In particular with single mode fiber system,the effect
of signal degradation can be small and hence the
major limitation on repeater spacing becomes
attenuation due to fiber losses.
• Such systems do not require full regeneration of the
transmitted digital signal at each repeater, and
optical amplification of the signal proves sufficient.
• The two main approaches to optical amplifier to date
have concentrated on semiconductor optical amplifier
which utilizes stimulated emission from injected
carriers and fiber amplifiers in which gain is provided
by either stimulated raman or Brillouin scattering or
by rare earth dopants.
• Both amplifier types have the ability to provide high
gain over wide bandwidth.
• Semiconductor optical Amplifiers however offers an
advantage due to their smaller size and also because
they can be integrated to produce subsystems which
are essential elements of current optical
communication systems and networks.
• The typical gain profile for various optical amplifiers
are around 1.3 to 1.5 um wavelength region.It may
be observed that the semiconductor optical amplifier
,the erbium doped fiber amplifier and the raman
amplifier all provides wide spectral bandwidth.
• Brillouin fiber amplifier has very narrow spectral
bandwidth, possibly around 50 MHz and therefore
can not be employed for wide bandwidth
application.
• SOA exhibit low power consumption and their single
mode waveguide structures make them particularly
appropriate for use with single mode fiber.
 Semiconductor Optical Amplifier
• The SOA is based on the conventional
semiconductor laser structure where the output
facet reflectivities's are between 30 and 35%.
• Semiconductor optical Amplifier can be used for
both nonlinear and linear mode of operation.
• Various types of SOA may be distinguished
including the resonant or fabry perot amplifier
which is an oscillator biased below oscillation
threshold.
• Such devices are capable of providing high
internal gain (15-35db) with low power
consumption and their single mode
waveguide structure make them particularly
suitable for use with single mode fiber.
• Semiconductor optical amplifier can however
be classified into main groups which are febry
perot amplifier and travelling wave amplifier.
• SOA amplifier is based on the conventional
semiconductor optical structure (gain or index
guided) with an active area width w, thickness d and
length l.
• When the input and output laser facet reflectivities
denoted by R1 and R2 are each around 0.3, which
depicts a normal semiconductor laser, then an FPA is
obtained.
• In this case, facet reflectivity is large , a high
resonant amplifier is formed and the
transmission characteristics comprises very
narrow passband.
• The mode 0 corresponds to the peak gain
wavelength and the mode spacing δf can be
obtained. δλ = λ2 /2nL
• For operation, FPA is biased below the normal lasing
threshold current and light entering one facet appears
amplified at the other facet together with inherent
noise.
• In practice, amplifier chip is bonded into a package with
single mode fiber pigtails which are used to guide light
into and out of fiber amplifier.
• The inherent filtering of the FPA although useful in certain
applications means the device is very sensitive to
fluctuations in bias current, temperature and signal
polarization.
• Because of resonant nature of FPA, combined with their
high internal field ,they are used within non linear
applications for example to provide pulse shaping and
bistable elements.
• To form a traveling wave SOA ,antireflection coatings
may be applied to the laser facet to reduce or eliminate
the end reflectivities.
• This can be achieved by depositing a thin layer of silicon
oxide, silicon nitride or titanium oxide on the end facets
so that the reflectivities are reduced to 1x 10 -4 or
less.Such a device becomes a TWA operating in the
single pass amplification mode in which fabry perot
resonance is suppressed by the reduction in facet
reflectivity.
 Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers
• The active medium in an optical fiber amplifier
consist of nominally 10-30 m length of optical
fiber that has been lightly doped (eg.1000 parts per
million weight) with rare earth element,such as
erbium (Er),ytterbium (Yb),thulium™ .The host
fiber material can be standard silica, a fluoride-
based glass or tellurite glass.
• The operating region of this device depends on the
host material and doping element.
• A popular material for long haul
telecommunication application is silica doped
with erbium, which is known as erbium
doped fiber amplifier.
• In some cases,Yb is added to increase the
pumping efficiency and the amplifier gain.
• The operation of EDFA is nominally limited to
530 to 1560 nm region.
• The operation of EDFA by itself normally
limited to the 1530 to 1560 nm region.
 Amplification mechanism

• Whereas semiconductor optical amplifier use

external injection to excite electrons to higher
energy levels, optical fiber amplifier uses the
optical pumping.
• In this process, one uses photons to directly raise
electrons into excited states.The optical pumping
process requires the use of three energy levels.
• The top energy level to which electron is elevated must lie
energetically above the desired lasing level. After reaching
its excited state, the electrons must release some of its
energy and drop to the desired lasing level.
• From this level, a single photon can then trigger the
excited electrons into stimulated emission hereby the
electrons release its remaining energy in the form of new
photon with a wavelength identical to that of signal
photon.
• Since the pump photon must have higher energy than the
single photon, the pump wavelength is shorter than the
signal wavelength.
• The erbium atoms in silica are Er+ ions, which are erbium
atoms that have lost three of their outer electrons.
• In describing the transition of the outer electrons in these
ions to higher energy state, it is common to process as”
raising the ions to higher energy level”.
• The two principle levels for telecommunication
appplications are a metastable level and the pump level.
• The term metastable means the lifetime for transition
from the this state to the ground state are very long
compared with the lifetimes of the states that leads to
this level.
• The metastable, the pump, and the ground state levels
are actually band of closely spaced energy levels that
form a manifold due to the effect known as stark
splitting.
• Possible pump wavelengths are 980 and 1480
nm.The photons emitted during transition of
electrons between possible energy levels in
metastable and ground state bands can range from
1530 to 1600nm.
• In normal operation, a pump laser emitting 980 nm
photon is used to excite ions from the ground state
to the pump level.
• These excited ions decay very quickly( in about 1
us) from the pump band to met stable band,
shown as transition process 2.
• During this decay the excess energy is released as
photons or equivalently, mechanical vibrations in
the fiber. Within the metastable band, the
electrons of the excited ions tends to populate the
lower end to the band.Here they are characterized
by a very long fluorescene time of about 10 ms.
• Another possible pump wavelength is 1480
nm.The energy of these pump photons is very
similar to the signal photon energy, but slightly
higher. The absorption of a 1480 nm pump
photon excite an electron from the ground
state directly to the lightly populated top of
the metastable level.
• These electrons then tend to move down to the
more populated lower end of metastable level .
• Some of the ions sitting at the metastable level
can decay back to ground state in the absence of
an externally stimulated photon flux. This decay
process is known as spontanious emission and add
to the amplifier noise.
• Two more types of transition occurs when a flux
of single photons that have energies correspond to
band gap energy between the ground state and the
metastable level passes through the device.
• First, a small portion of external photons will be
absorbed by ions in the ground state, which raises
these ions to metastable level .Secondly in the
stimulated emission process , a signal photon
triggers an excited ion to drop to ground state
,thereby emitting a new photon of the same
energy, wave vector and polarization as the incoming
signal photon.
• The widths of the metastable and ground state allows
high levels of stimulated emissions to occur in the
1530 to 1560 nm range.
 EDFA Architecture
• An optical fiber amplifier consist of a doped
fiber, one or more pump laser,a passive
wavelength coupler, optical isolator and tap
coupler .
• The dichroic (Two wavelength) coupler
handles either 980/1550 nm or 1480/1150 nm
wavelength combination to couple both the
pump and signal optical power efficiently into
the fiber amplifier.
• The tap coupler are wavelength insensitive
with typical splitting ratio ranging from 99:1 to
95:1 .They are generally used on both sides of
the amplifier to compare the incoming signal
with amplified output.
• The optical amplifier prevents the amplified
signal from reflecting back into the device ,
where it could increase the amplifier noise and
decrese the amplifier efficiency.
• The pump light is usually injected from the same
direction as the signal flow .This is known as
codirectional pumping .
• It is also possible to inject the pump power in the
opposite direction to the signal flow, which is known
as counter direction pumping.
• One can employ either a single pump source or use
dual pump scheme with the resultant gain being 17 db
and +35 db respectively.Counterdirectional pumping
gives higher gain but codirectional pumping gives
better noise performance.
• Pumping at 980 nm is preferred since it
produces less noise and achieves high
population inversion.
 Configuration of EDFA
Tap OI WSC EDFA Tap Signal out

Pump
Laser
 Raman Amplifier
• A Raman amplifier is based on a nonlinear effect is
called stimulated Raman scattering which occurs in
fiber at high power.
• The SRS effect is due to the interaction between an
optical energy field and vibrational modes of the
lattice structure in a material.
• Basically what happens is that atom first absorbs a
photon at a particular energy and then release
another photon at a lower energy , that is, at a
longer wavelength than that of absorbed photon.
• The energy difference between the absorbed
and released photon is transferred into a
photon which is a vibrational mode of
material.
• The power transfer to higher wavelength
occurs over a broad spectral of 80 to 100 nm.
• The shift to a particular longer wavelength is
referred to as Stokes shift for that wavelength.
• Whereas an EDFA requires a specially constructed
optical fiber for its operation ,a Raman amplifier makes
use of its standard transmission fiber itself as the
amplification medium.
• The Raman gain mechanism can be achieved through
either a lumped amplifier or a distributed amplifier .
• In the lumped Raman Amplifier configuration, a spool
of about 80m of small core fiber along with
appropriate along with appropriate pump laser laser is
inserted into the transmission path as a distinct
packaged unit.
• For the distributed Raman Amplifier application,
optical power from one or more Raman pump laser
is inserted into the end of the transmission fiber into
a preamplifier.
• Hence the word is distributed, since the gain is
spread over a wide distance.
• As the optical power from the pumps travels
upstream ,the SRS effect progressively transfer
power from shorter wavelength to longer
wavelengths.
• This occurs over the characteristics Raman
Gain length

• LG=gRP/A eff
• Where P is the pump laser power
• Aeff is the effective area
 Attenuation Measurement
• Attenuation of optical power in a fiber is a result
of absorption process, scattering mechanism and
waveguide effects.
• Three basic methods are available for
determining attenuation in fibers.
• The earliest devised and most common approach
involves measuring the optical power transmitted
through a long and short length of the same fiber
using identical input couplings. This method is
known as cut back method.
 Cut Back technique set up for
measurement of optical fiber
Test Fiber

Optical Mode
Photodetector
Source Stripper
• The cut back technique which is a destructive
method requiring access to both ends of the
fiber.Measurement may be made at one or
more specific wavelength ,or, alternatively a
spectral response may be required over a
range of wavelengths.
• To find the transmission loss, the optical
power is first measured at the output of the
fiber.
• Then without disturbing the input condition
,the fiber is cut off few meters from the source
, and the output power at this near end is
measured. If PF and PN represents the output
power of the far and near end respectively
,the average loss α in decibel per kilometer
10 𝑃𝑁
• α= log
𝐿 𝑃𝐹
• Where L(in kilometers) is the separation of the
two measurement points
• In carrying out this measurement techniques, special
attention must be paid to how optical power is
launched into the fiber. This is because in a
multimode fiber, different launched condition can
yield different loss values.
• The effect of modal dispersion in a multimode fiber
that results from different numerical aperture and
spot sizes on the launched end of the fiber.
• If the spot size is small and its NA is less than that of
the fiber core ,the optical power is concentrated in
the centre of the core.
 Insertion loss method
• Fo cables with connectors one can not use cut
back method.In this method ,one commonly
use an insertion loss technique.This is less
accurate than the cut back method but is
intended for field measurements to give the
total attenuation of a cable assembly in
decibels.
Test set up for measuring insertion loss
technique(Reference Measurement)

Light Launching Optic

Source al Photodetector
System
Conn
ector
• The basic set up where the launch and
detector coupling are made through
connectors.The wavelength tunable light
source is coupled to the short length of fiber
that has the same basic characterstics as the
fiber to be tested.For multimode fibers, mode
scrambler is used to ensure that the fiber core
contains equilibrium mode distribution.
• In single mode fibers, a cladding mode
stripper is employed so that only the
fundamental mode is allowed to propogate
along the fiber.
• A wavelength selective device such as optical
filter is genertally included to find the
attenuation as a function of wavelength.
 Fiber under test

Light
Sour Launching 1A B2
ce system

Photodetect
or
• To carry out the attenuation test, the connector of
the short launching fiber is attached to the connector
of the receiving system and the launche power level
𝑃1 (λ) is recorded.
• Next the cable assembly to be tested is connected
between launching and receiving systems , and the
received power level 𝑃2 (λ) is recorded.

𝑃1 (λ)
• 𝐴= 10 log
𝑃2 (λ)
• This attenuation is the sum of loss of the
cabled fiber and the connector between the
launched connector and the cable.
 Dispersion Measurement
• Three different forms of dispersion produces
pulse broadening of lightwave signals in
optical fibers ,thereby limiting the information
carrying capacity .
• In multimode fibers, intermodal dispersion
arises from the fact that each mode in optical
pulse travels a slightly different distance and
thus arrives at the fiber end at slightly offset
time.
• Chromatic dispersion stems from the
variations in the propagation speed of
individual wavelengths components of the
optical signal .Polarization mode dispersion
arrises from the splitting of a polarized signal
into orthogonal polarization modes ,each of
which has a different propagation speed.
 Intermodal Dispersion
• For practical purpose in evaluation intermodal
dispersion , a fiber may be considered as a filter
characterized by an impulse response h(t) or by
power transfer function H(f), which is the Fourier
transform of the impulse response.
• Either of these can be measured to determine
pulse dispersion.
• The impulse response measurements are made in
the time domain ,whereas the power dispersion is
measured in frequency domain.
• Both the time domain and frequency domain
assume that the fiber behaves quasi-linearly in
power that is individual overlapping output
pulses from from an optical waveguide can be
treated as adding linearly.
• The behavior of such systems in the time
domain is described simply as
+𝑇/2
• 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 (t)=ℎ(𝑡)*Pin(t)=‫׬‬−𝑇/2 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑡 − τ ℎ τ 𝑑τ
• That is the output pulse pout(t) of the fiber can
be calculated through the convolution of the
input pulse Pin(t) and the power function h(t)
of the fiber.
• The period T of the input pulse should be taken
to be wider than the expected time spread of
output pulse.
• In the frequency domain Pout(f)=H(f) Pin(f)
 Time Domain Intermodal Dispersion
• In this set up, inject narrow pulse of optical
energy into one end of optical fiber and detect
the broadened end at the other end.
• Here output pulse from a laser source are
coupled through mode scrambler into a test
fiber.The output of the fiber is measured with a
sampling oscilloscope that has build in optical
receiver or the signal can be detected with a
external photo detector and then measured with
a regular sampling oscilloscope.
• Now the shape of the input pulse is measured
the same way by replacing fiber with a short
reference fiber that has a length less than 1%
of the test fiber length.This reference fiber can
be short length cut from the test fiber or it can
be a fiber segment that has similar properties.
• The variable delay in the trigeer line is used to
offset the difference in delay between the test
fiber and shorter reference fiber.
 Frequency domain intermodal
dispersion measurement
• It gives amplitude vs frequency response and
phase vs frequency response. The dispersion
measurement is made by sinusoidally
modulating a narrowband continuous wave
light signal into a fixed level.
• The baseband response is then found from the
ratio of the sine wave amplitudes at the
beginning and end of the fiber.
• The dispersion measurement can be made by
sinusoidally modulating a narrowband
contineuous CW light signal about a fixed
level.The baseband frequency response is
then found from the ratio of sine wave
amplitudes at the beginning and end of the
fiber.
• Fiber under test
Laser Source Mode Photodetect
Scrambler or

Spectrum
Electrical Analyzer
Source
Reference
Channel
• Figure shows the experimental arrangement for
finding fiber baseband frequency reponse.A
sweft frequency RF source or a mcrowave signal
source is used to modulate an optical carrier
sinusoidally.The optical signal is coupled through
a mode scrambler to the test fiber.
• At the exit end of the fiber, a photdetector
measures Pot(f), the output power is a function
of the modulating frequency.
• The input signal is then measured by
substituting a short ference fiber for the test
fiber, therby yielding Pin(f)

• Comparasion of the spectrum at the fiber

output with spectrum at the fiber input
provides baseband frequency response H(f) of
the fiber under test.
• H(f)=Pout(f)/Pin(f)
• As the modulation frequency is increased, the
optical power level at the fiber output will
eventually start to decrese.The fiber is defined
as the lowest frequency at which H(f) has
been reduced to 0.5.
Wavelength-division multiplexing
• In telecommunication, wavelength-division
multiplexing (WDM) is a technology which
multiplexes several optical carrier signals on a single
optical fiber by using different wavelengh(colours)
of laser light to carry different signals.
• Time division multiplexing is not the only way that
system can exploit the full potential of the enormous
bandwidth of optical fiber links.Another technique
which can be used in conjuction with TDM is
wavelenth division multiplexing
Wavelength-division multiplexing
• Wavelengh is the reciprocal of frequency ,so WDM is
really another name for FDM.
• Optical community charactersies signals by their
wavelength rather than frequency so WDM is really
another name for FDM.
• In WDM,one signal modulates a laser diode which is
designed to operate at specific wavelengh
output,while another serial data signal modulates a
laser diode that operates at nearby another
wavelength & so on.
Wavelength-division multiplexing
• The individual modulated signals are then combined
within a special optical device is called interleave
which is the optical equivalent of of a summing or
multiplexing circuit.
• The resulting modulated signal is launched into the
fiber which now will carry multiple bit stream in
parallel.
Wavelength-division multiplexing
• At the receiving end ,optical filters –special crystals
tuned to specific optical wavelengths just like pass
band filter for electrical signals separates the
numerous WDM signals and then demultiplex them
• Each demultiplex signal then goes to its own path
,where it can be carried by another optical fiber or
converted to an electrical signal and then decoded.
Wavelength-division multiplexing
• One attractive aspects of WDM is that it is not
necessary to multiplex or demux all the optical
signal's at the same end location such that fiber acts
as entirely point to point link.
• It is possible to built special interleave that
multiplexes in just a few designed signal ,or that
filters out just a few specific ones.
Wavelength-division multiplexing

• These specific components are called as add

drop components .Using this system ,a single
fiber can pick up and drop off some of its trafic
at specific locations as it wind its way through
a city or crowded area.
• ITU standards for WDM is 1550 nm optical
window range are centered around 193.1 T Hz
reference frequency with 100 GHz spacing.
Wavelength-division multiplexing
• This allows for a multiplication in capacity, in
addition to making it possible to perform
bidirectional communications over one strand
of fiber.
 Wavelengths Division Multiplexing

Data Sources 1

Laser Diode1
PIN Diode
Data
source 2
Laser Diode 2 Mux Demux PIN Diode

Amplifier

PIN Diode
n
DENSE WAVELENGH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
 DENSE WAVELENGH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

• Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM)

usually involves transmitting and receiving more than
eight "windows" of light. Sixteen, 40, and 80
windowed systems are common. Mathematically, 111
windows are possible over a single pair of optical
fibers at the wavelengths used today.
 DENSE WAVELENGH DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

• The range of long-range systems is extended by the

use of repeaters and optical amplifiers. A repeater is
essentially a back-to-back receiver and transmitter,
which regenerates the optical signal, eliminating or
reducing the degradations resulting from transmission
through the fiber. An optical amplifier is typically
made by doping a length of fiber with the rare-earth
mineral erbiuym, and pumping it with light from a
laser with a shorter wavelength than the
communications signal (typically 980 nm). Because
of their greater reliability, amplifiers have largely
replaced repeaters in new installations.
Optical Fiber Multiplexer
 Optical Time Domain Reflectrometer

• An OTDR is a versatile portable measuring

instrument that is widely used to evaluate the
characteristics of an installed optical fiber link.
• In addition to identifying and locating faults or
anomalies within the link, this instrument
measures parameters such as fiber attenuation
,length,optical connectors and splice loss and
light reflectance levels.
• An OTDR is fundamentally an optical RADAR.An
OTDR operates by periodically launching narrow laser
pulse into one end of the optical fiber link are
determined by analyzing the amplitude and temporal
characteristics of the waveform of the reflected and
back scattered signal.
• A typical OTDR consists of a light source and receiver,
data acquisition and processing modules , an
information storage unit for retaining data either in
internal memory or external disc, and a display.
 Optical
OTDR Laser Circula Fiber under test
tor

Signal
processor Photodetector
and display
 OTDR Trace
• The scale of the vertical axis is logarithmic and
measures the returning signal in decibels.
• The horizontal axis denotes the distance
between the instrument and the measurement
point in the fiber.
• The backscatter waveform has four distinct
features:
• A large initial pulse resulting from Fresnel
reflection at the input end of the fiber.
• A long decaying tail resulting from Rayleigh
scattering in the reverse direction as the input
pulse travels along the fiber.
• Abrupt shift in the curve caused by optical loss
at joints in the fiber line.
• Positive spikes arising from Fresnel reflection
at the far end of the fiber, at fiber joints, and at
fiber imperfections.
• Fresnel reflections and Rayleigh scattering
principally produce the backscatter light.
Fresnel reflection occurs when light enters a
medium having different index of reflection.
For a glass-air interface, when light of power
P0 incident perpendicular to the interface ,the
reflected power Pref is
• Where nfiber and nair are the refractive indices of
the fiber core and air respectively.
• Two important performance parameters of an
OTDR are dynamic range and measurement
range.
• Dynamic range is defined as the difference
between the initial backscatter level at the front
connector and noise peak at the far end of the
fiber.
• It is expressed in decibel of one way fiber loss.
• Dynamic range provides information on the
maximum fiber loss that can be measured and
denotes the time to required to measure a given
fiber loss.
• For high resolution, pulse width has to be as
small as possible.However this reduces the signal
to noise ratio and thus lowers the dynamic range.
• Typical distance resolution value range from 8 cm
for a 10 nm pulse to 5m for a 50us pulse.
• Measurement range deals with how far away
an OTDR can identify events in the link such as
splice points, connection points or fiber
breaks.The maximum range Rmax depends on
the fiber attenuation α and on the pulse width
that is,the dynamic range Dotdr.

• Rmax=Dotdr/α
 OTDR Dead Zone
• The concept of dead zone is another OTDR specification.
Dead zone is the distance over which photo detector in an
OTDR is saturated momentarily after it measures a strong
reflection.
• There are two specifications for dead zone, There are two
specifications for dead zone.
• Event dead zone specifies minimum distance over which
an OTDR can detect a reflective event that follow another
reflective event.
• Typically vendor specify this as the distance between start
of reflection and the -1.5db point on the falling edge of
reflection.
• The attenuation dead zone indicates over
which the distance the photodetector in an
OTDR needs to recover following a reflective
event before it is again able to detect a splice.
This means that receiver has to recover to
within 0.5 db of the backscatter value .Typical
attenuation dead zone range from 10 to 25m.
 Optical Return loss
• In optical link, reflection of light in a backward
direction occur at various points .This can occur at
connector ,fibre ends, optical splitter interface and
within the fibre itself due to Rayleigh Scattering.
• The percentage of power reflected back from a
particular point in a light path is called back
reflection.
• Therefore it is desirable to measure the optical return
loss which is the percentage of total reverse power in
relation to total forward power at a particular point.
• The ORL =10 log (Pref/Pinc)
 Fiber Fault location
• To locate breaks and imperfections in an
optical fiber,the fiber length L (hence the
position of break fault) can be calculated from
the time difference between the pulses
reflected from the front of the fiber and the
event location.
• If the time difference is t,then the length L is
given by
• L=ct/2n1
 Network
Station:-
• A collection of devices that network
subscriber used to communicate are called
stations.
• These can be computers,monitoring
equipments,telephone ,fax machines or other
telecommunication equipment.
• Networks:- To establish connections between
these stations ,transmission path run between
them from a collection of interconnected stations
called a network.

• Node:-Within the network , a node is a point

where one or more communication lines
terminates and/or where stations are
connected.Stations also can be connected to a
transmission line.
• Trunk:-
• The trunk normally refers to a transmission
line that runs between nodes or networks and
supports large traffic loads.
• Topology:-
• The topology is the logical manner in which
nodes are link together by information
transmitting channels to form a network.
• Switching and routing:-
• The transfer of information from source to
destination through a series of intermediate
nodes is called switching and the selection of
a suitable path through a network is refered to
as routing.
 Network categories
• Local Area Networks:-
• A LAN interconnects user in a localized area
such as a large room or work ara,a
department, a building,a office or factory
complex.
• In networking topologythe word campus
refers to any group of buiding that are within
resoanble walking distance of each other.
 Meropolitan Area Network(MAN)
• MAN has larger area than LAN.The
interconnected facilities could range from
building located in several city blocks or within
the entire city and the metropolitian area
surrounding it.
• Thus distance between central switching
offices for a micronetwork range from a few to
several tens of kilometer.
 Wide Area Networks(WAN)
• A WAN spans a large geographical area .The
transmission distances can range from link
between switching facilities in neighboring
cities to long haul country terrestrial or
intercontinental undersea lines.
• The large cnnections of WAN resources are
owned by either private organization or by
telecommunication service providers.
 Network layers
• Physical layers:-
• The physical layers refers to a physical
transmission medium such as wire or an
optical fiber which can handle certain amount
of bandwidth
• It provides different types of physical
interfaces to equipments and its functions are
responsible for actual transmission of bits
across an optical fiber or metallic wires.
• Data link layer:-
• The purpose of data link layer is to
establish,mentain and release links that
directly connects two nodes.Its function
includes framing(defining how data is
structured for transport),multiplexing and
demultiplexing data.
• Exmples of data link protocols includes point
to point prottocol.
• Network layers:-
• The function of network layers is to deliver data
packets from source to destination across
multiple network links.
• Typically the network layer must find a path
through a series of connected nodes and the
nodes along this path must forward the packet to
the appropriate destination.
• The dominant network layer protocol is the
internet protocol.
• Transport layers:-
• The transport layer is responsible for reliable delivering
the complete message from the source to the
destination to satisfy a quality of service requested by
the upper layer.
• The QOS parameters includes throughput, transit delay,
bit error rate, delay time to establish a connection cost
,information security and message priority .
• The transmission control protocol used in the internet
is an example of a transport layer protocol.
 Network Topologies
• Access to an opticcal data bus is achieved by
means of a coupling element which can be
active or passive.
• An active coupler convers the optical signal on
the data bus to its electrical baseband
counterpart before any data processing.A
passive coupler employ no electronic
components.It is used passively to tap off a
portion of optical power from the bus.
• In ring topology ,consecutive nodes are
connected by point to point link that re arranged
to form a single closed path.Information in the
form of data packets is transmitted from node to
node around the ring.The interface at each node
is an active device that has the ability to
recognize its own address in the data packets in
order to accept message.
• The active node toward those messages that are
not addressed to itself on to its next address.
• In star architecture , all nodes are joined at a single
point called the central node or hub.The central node
can be active or passive device.This is useful when
most of the commmunications are in between the
central and the outlying nodes.
• If there is great deal of message traffic between the
outlying nodes,then a heavy switching burden is placed
on an active central node.
• In star network with a passive central node, a node
splitter is used at the hub to divide the incoming
optical signal among all the outgoing lines to the
attached stations.
• In mesh networks,point to point links connect the
nodes in an arbitrary fashion that can vary greatly from
one application to another.
• This topology allows significant network flexibility and
offers connections protection in case there are multiple
links or node failures.
• Link protection in mesh networks is accomplished by
means of a mechanism that first determines where the
failure has occurred and then restored the interuppted
service by redirecting the traffic from a failed link or
node to another link in the mesh.
 SONET
• A key characterstics of Synchronous optical
network is that they are configured as either a
ring or mesh network.
• In SONET or SDH rings, the traffic along a
certain path can automaticaly be switched to
an alternate or standby path following failure
or degradation of the link segment.
• There are three main features for SONET
ring.There can be either two or four fibers
running between the nodes on a ring.
• Secondly the operating signals can travl either
clockwise only or in both directions.
• Protection switching can be performed via line
switching or path switching schemes.
• Upon link failures, path switching moves all
signal channel of an entire OC-N channel to a
protection fiber.
• SONET equipment allows the configuration of
a variety of network architecture .One can
build point to point link,linear
chains,unidirectional path
switching,bidirectional line switched ring and
interconnected rings.
• A fundamental SONET/SDH network element is
the add/drop multiplexer.This piece of equipment
is fully synchronous ,byte oriented
multiplexerthat is used to add or drop
subchannels within OC-N signal.
• Various OC-1s and OC-3 are multiplexed into an
OC-48 stream.
• Upon entering an ADM,these subchannels can be
individually dropped by the ADM and others can
be added.
 Soliton
• Group velocity disperion causes mode pulses
to broden in time as they propogate through
an optical fiber.However a perticular pulse
shape known as a soliton takes advntage of
non linear effects in silica,perticularly self
phase modulation resulting from the kerr
nonlinearity to overcome pulse brodenning
effect.
• The term soliton refers to the special kinds of
waves that can propogate and remain unaffected
after collision with each other.
• John Scott Russel made the first observation of a
soliton in 1838 .
• In optical communication syatems,solitons are
very narrow ,high intensity optical pulses that
retians their shape through the interaction of
balncing pulse dispersion with non linear
propertiesof a optical fiber.
• Depending upon the perticular shape
chosen,the pulse either does not change its
shape as it propogates or it undergoes
perioduically repeating change in shape.
• The family of pulses that do not change its
shape are called fundamental solitons and
those that undergoes periodic shape change
are called higher order solitons.
• In either case ,aatenuation in the fiber will
eventually decrese the soliton energy.
 Link Power budget
• An optical power loss model for point to point
link as shown in figure. The optical power
received at the photodetector depends on the
amount of light into the fiber and the losses
occurring in the fiber and at the connectors and
splices.
• The link budget is derived from the sequential
loss contributions of eah elements in the link.
• Each of these link loss is expressed in decibel
• Loss=10 log Pout/Pin
• Where Pin and Pout are the optical power
entering and leaving the loss elements
respectively.
• In addition to the link loss contribution, a link
power margin is normally provided in the
analysis is to allow for component
aging,temerature fluctuations, and losses
arising from components .
• A link margin of 6-8 db is generally used for
systems that are not expected to have
additional components into the link in future.
• The link budget simply considers the total
optical power loss Pi, that is allowed between
the light source and the photodetector ,and
allocate this loss to cable
attenuation,connector loss,splice loss,and
system margin.
• A link margin of 6-8 db is generally used for
systems that are not expected to have
additional components into the link in future.
• The link budget simply considers the total
optical power loss Pi, that is allowed between
the light source and the photodetector ,and
allocate this loss to cable
attenuation,connector loss,splice loss,and
system margin.
• If PI is the optical power emerging from the end
of a fiber flylead attached to the light source or
from source –coupled connector ,and if Pr is the
receiver sensity, then
• PT=Ps-PR
• =2lc+αL+System margin
• Where lc is the connector loss,
• Α is the fiber attenuation (db/km) ,L is the
transmission distance and system margin is
normally taken as 6 db.
 Rise Time Budget
• A rise time budget is a convenient method for
determining the dispersion limitation of an
optical fiber link.This is perticularly useful for
digital system.
• In this system total rise time of the link is the
root sum square of the rise times from each
contributors ti to the pulse rise degradation
• Tsys=
• The four elements that may significantly limt
system speed are the transmitter rise time,
the group velocity dispersion,rise time of the
fiber and the modal dispersion time and the
receiver rise time. `