Introduction To Parallel Processing: Chapter 1 From Culler & Singh Winter 2007

Introduction to parallel processing
Chapter 1 from Culler & Singh

Winter 2007
0
Introduction
 What is Parallel Architecture?
 Why Parallel Architecture?
 Evolution and Convergence of Parallel Architectures
 Fundamental Design Issues
Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 1

High-Performance Computer Architecture
What is Parallel Architecture?
 A parallel computer is a collection of processing

elements that cooperate to solve large problems fast
 Some broad issues:
 Resource Allocation:
 how large a collection?
 how powerful are the elements?
 how much memory?
 Data access, Communication and Synchronization
 how do the elements cooperate and communicate?
 how are data transmitted between processors?
 what are the abstractions and primitives for cooperation?
 Performance and Scalability
 how does it all translate into performance?
 how does it scale?

Why Study Parallel Architecture?
 Role of a computer architect:

 To design and engineer the various levels of a computer
system to maximize performance and programmability within
limits of technology and cost.
 Parallelism:
 Provides alternative to faster clock for performance
 Applies at all levels of system design
 Is a fascinating perspective from which to view architecture
 Is increasingly central in information processing

Why Study it Today?
 History: diverse and innovative organizational
structures, often tied to novel programming models
 Rapidly maturing under strong technological

constraints
 The “killer micro” is ubiquitous
 Laptops and supercomputers are fundamentally similar!
 Technological trends cause diverse approaches to converge
 Technological trends make parallel computing
inevitable
 In the mainstream
 Need to understand fundamental principles and
design tradeoffs, not just taxonomies
 Naming, Ordering, Replication, Communication performance

Application Trends
 Demand for cycles fuels advances in hardware, and vice-versa
 Cycle drives exponential increase in microprocessor performance
 Drives parallel architecture harder: most demanding applications
 Range of performance demands

 Need range of system performance with progressively increasing
cost
 Platform pyramid
 Goal of applications in using parallel machines: Speedup
Performance (p processors)
Speedup (p processors) =
Performance (1 processor)
 For a fixed problem size (input data set), performance = 1/time

Time (1 processor)
Speedup fixed problem (p processors) =
Time (p processors)

Scientific Computing Demand

Engineering Computing Demand
 Large parallel machines a mainstay in many

industries, for example,
 Petroleum (reservoir analysis)
 Automotive (crash simulation, drag analysis, combustion
efficiency),
 Aeronautics (airflow analysis, engine efficiency, structural
mechanics, electromagnetism),
 Computer-aided design
 Pharmaceuticals (molecular modeling)
 Visualization
 in all of the above
 entertainment (films like Shrek 2, The Incredibles)
 architecture (walk-throughs and rendering)
 Financial modeling (yield and derivative analysis).
Applications: Speech and Image Processing
10 GIPS 5,000 Words

Continuous
1,000 Words Speech
1 GIPS Continuous Recognition
Speech HDTVReceiver
Telephone Recognition
Number CIF Video
100 M IPS Recognition ISDN-CD Stereo
200 Words Receiver
Isolated Sp eech
Recognition CELP
10 M IP S Speech Coding
Speaker
Veri¼cation
1 M IPS Sub-Band
Speech Coding
1980 1985 1990 1995
• Also CAD, Databases, . . .

• 100 processors gets you 10 years!

Learning Curve for Parallel Applications
 AMBER molecular dynamics simulation program

 Starting point was vector code for Cray-1
 145 MFLOP on Cray90, 406 for final version on 128-processor Paragon,
891 on 128-processor Cray T3D
Commercial Computing
 Also relies on parallelism for high end

 Scale not so large, but use much more wide-spread
 Computational power determines scale of business that can
be handled
 Databases, online-transaction processing, decision
support, data mining, data warehousing ...
 TPC benchmarks (TPC-C order entry, TPC-D
decision support)
 Explicit scaling criteria provided
 Size of enterprise scales with size of system
 Problem size no longer fixed as p increases, so throughput
is used as a performance measure (transactions per minute
or tpm)

Summary of Application Trends
 Transition to parallel computing has occurred for

scientific and engineering computing
 In rapid progress in commercial computing
 Database and transactions as well as financial
 Usually smaller-scale, but large-scale systems also used
 Desktop also uses multithreaded programs, which
are a lot like parallel programs
 Demand for improving throughput on sequential
workloads
 Greatest use of small-scale multiprocessors
 Solid application demand exists and will increase

Technology Trends
100
Supercomputers
10
Performance
Mainframes
Microprocessors
Minicomputers
1
0.1
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
The natural building block for multiprocessors is now also about the fastest!
General Technology Trends
 Microprocessor performance increases 50% - 100% per year
 Transistor count doubles every 3 years
 DRAM size quadruples every 3 years
 Huge investment per generation is carried by huge commodity market
 Not that single-processor performance is plateauing, but that
parallelism is a natural way to improve it.
180
160
140
DEC
120
alpha
100 Integer FP
IBM
80 HP 9000
RS6000
750
60 540
MIPS
40 MIPS
Sun 4 M/120 M2000
20 260
0
1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

Technology: A Closer Look
 Basic advance is decreasing feature size ( )
 Circuits become either faster or lower in power
 Die size is growing too

 Clock rate improves roughly proportional to improvement in 
 Number of transistors improves like  (or faster)
 Performance > 100x per decade; clock rate 10x, rest transistor
count
 How to use more transistors?
 Parallelism in processing
 multiple operations per cycle reduces CPI Proc $
 Locality in data access

 avoids latency and reduces CPI
 also improves processor utilization Interconnect
 Both need resources, so tradeoff
 Fundamental issue is resource distribution, as in uniprocessors

Clock Frequency Growth Rate
1,000






 R10000



100 


Clock rate (MHz)


 Pentium100


 





 

 

  

i80386

10 i8086  i80286


i8080
1 

 i8008
i4004
0.1
1970 1980 1990 2000
1975 1985 1995 2005
• 30% per year
Transistor Count Growth Rate
• 100 million transistors on chip by early 2000’s A.D.

• Transistor count grows much faster than clock rate
- 40% per year, order of magnitude more contribution in 2 decades
100,000,000

10,000,000 


 R10000

 Pentium





 

 
1,000,000
Transistors



 
i80386

i80286    R3000
100,000   R2000
i8086
10,000 

 i8080
 i8008
i4004
1,000
1970 1980 1990 2000
1975 1985 1995 2005

Storage Performance
 Divergence between memory capacity and speed more
pronounced
 Capacity increased by 1000x from 1980-2005, speed only 5x
 4 Gigabit DRAM now, but gap with processor speed much greater
 Larger memories are slower, while processors get faster
 Need to transfer more data in parallel
 Need deeper cache hierarchies
 How to organize caches?
 Parallelism increases effective size of each level of hierarchy,

without increasing access time
 Parallelism and locality within memory systems too
 New designs fetch many bits within memory chip; follow with fast
pipelined transfer across narrower interface
 Buffer caches most recently accessed data
 Disks too: Parallel disks plus caching

Architectural Trends
 Architecture translates technology’s gifts to performance and
capability
 Resolves the tradeoff between parallelism and locality
 Current microprocessor: 1/3 compute, 1/3 cache, 1/3 off-chip
connect
 Tradeoffs may change with scale and technology advances
 Understanding microprocessor architectural trends
 Helps build intuition about design issues or parallel machines
 Shows fundamental role of parallelism even in “sequential”
computers
 Four generations of architectural history: tube, transistor, IC,
VLSI
 Here focus only on VLSI generation
 Greatest delineation in VLSI has been in type of parallelism
exploited

Architectural Trends in VLSI
 Greatest trend in VLSI generation is increase in parallelism
 Up to 1985: bit level parallelism: 4-bit -> 8 bit -> 16-bit
 slows after 32 bit
 adoption of 64-bit now under way, 128-bit far (not performance
issue)
 great inflection point when 32-bit micro and cache fit on a chip
 Mid 80s to mid 90s: instruction level parallelism

 pipelining and simple instruction sets, + compiler advances (RISC)
 on-chip caches and functional units => superscalar execution
 greater sophistication: out of order execution, speculation,
prediction
 to deal with control transfer and latency problems
 2000s: Thread-level parallelism

ILP Ideal Potential
30 3
 

25 2.5
Fraction of total cycles (%)
20 2

Speedup
15 1.5
10 1 
5 0.5
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6+ 0 5 10 15
Number of instructions issued Instructions issued per cycle
• Infinite resources and fetch bandwidth, perfect branch prediction and renaming
– real caches and non-zero miss latencies

Raw Uniprocessor Performance: LINPACK
10,000
 CRAY 1,000x1000 matrix
s CRAY 100 x 100 matrix
 Micro 1,000x1000 matrix
 Micro 100 x 100 matrix

1,000 
T94
s
C90
s 
LINPACK (MFLOPS)

 DEC 8200
 Ymp

Xmp/416 s   
s    IBM Power2/990
100
MIPS R4400
Xmp/14se
s   DEC Alpha

HP9000/735
DEC Alpha AXP
s CRAY 1s  HP 9000/750
IBM RS6000/540
10


MIPS M/2000

MIPS M/120

Sun 4/260
1 

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Summary: Why Parallel Architecture?
 Increasingly attractive
 Economics, technology, architecture, application demand
 Increasingly central and mainstream
 Parallelism exploited at many levels

 Instruction-level parallelism
 Multiprocessor servers
 Large-scale multiprocessors (“MPPs”)
 Focus of this class: multiprocessor level of parallelism
 Same story from memory system perspective

 Increase bandwidth, reduce average latency with many local
memories
 Wide range of parallel architectures make sense

 Different cost, performance and scalability

History of parallel architectures
 Historically, parallel architectures tied to programming models
 Divergent architectures, with no predictable pattern of growth.
 Uncertainty of direction paralyzed parallel software development!
Application Software
Systolic System
Arrays Software SIMD
Architecture
Message Passing
Dataflow
Shared Memory

Today’s architectural viewpoint
 Architectural enhancements to support communication and

cooperation
 OLD: Instruction Set Architecture
 NEW: Communication Architecture
 Defines
 Critical abstractions, boundaries, and primitives (interfaces)
 Organizational structures that implement interfaces (h/w or s/w)
 Compilers, libraries and OS are important bridges today

Modern Layered Framework
CAD Database Scientific modeling Parallel applications
Multiprogramming Shared Message Data Programming models

address passing parallel
Compilation
or library Communication abstraction
User/system boundary
Operating systems support
Hardware/software boundary
Communication hardware
Physical communication medium

Programming Model
 What programmer uses in coding applications

 Specifies communication and synchronization
 Examples:
 Multiprogramming: no communication or synch. at program level
 Shared address space: like bulletin board
 Message passing: like letters or phone calls, explicit point to point
 Data parallel: more regimented, global actions on data
 Implemented with shared address space or message passing

Communication Abstraction
 User level communication primitives provided
 Realizes the programming model
 Mapping exists between language primitives of programming model
and these primitives
 Supported directly by HW, or via OS, or via user SW
 Lot of debate about what to support in SW and gap between
layers
 Today:
 HW/SW interface tends to be flat, i.e. complexity roughly uniform
 Compilers and software play important roles as bridges today
 Technology trends exert strong influence
 Result is convergence in organizational structure
 Relatively simple, general purpose communication primitives

Communication Architecture
 Comm. Arch. = User/System Interface + Implementation
 User/System Interface:
 Comm. primitives exposed to user-level by HW and system-level
SW
 Implementation:
 Organizational structures that implement the primitives: HW or OS
 How optimized are they? How integrated into processing node?
 Structure of network
 Goals:
 Performance
 Broad applicability
 Programmability
 Scalability
 Low Cost

Evolution of Architectural Models
 Historically machines tailored to programming models
 Prog. model, comm. abstraction, and machine organization lumped
together as the “architecture”
 Evolution helps understand convergence
 Identify core concepts
 Shared Address Space
 Message Passing
 Data Parallel
 Others:
 Dataflow
 Systolic Arrays
 Examine programming model, motivation, intended applications,
and contributions to convergence

Shared Address Space Architectures
 Any processor can directly reference any memory location

 Communication occurs implicitly as result of loads and stores
 Convenient:
 Location transparency
 Similar programming model to time-sharing on uniprocessors
 Except processes run on different processors
 Good throughput on multiprogrammed workloads
 Naturally provided on wide range of platforms
 History dates at least to precursors of mainframes in early 60s
 Wide range of scale: few to hundreds of processors
 Popularly known as shared memory machines or model

 Ambiguous: memory may be physically distributed among
processors

Shared Address Space Model
 Process: virtual address space plus one or more threads of control
 Portions of address spaces of processes are shared
Machine physical address space
Virtual address spaces for a
collection of processes communicating
via shared addresses Pn pr i v at e
Load
Pn
Common physical
P2 addresses
P1
P0
St or e
P2 pr i vat e
Shared portion
of address space
P1 pr i vat e
Private portion
of address space
P0 pr i vat e
 Writes to shared address visible to other threads (in other processes

too)
 Natural extension of uniprocessors model: conventional memory operations
for comm.; special atomic operations for synchronization
 OS uses shared memory to coordinate processes

Communication Hardware in SAS arch.
 Also natural extension of uniprocessor
 Already have processor, one or more memory modules and I/O
controllers connected by hardware interconnect of some sort
I/O
devices
Mem Mem Mem Mem I/O ctrl I/O ctrl
Interconnect Interconnect
Processor Processor
 Memory capacity increased by adding modules, I/O by

controllers
 Add processors for processing!
 For higher-throughput multiprogramming, or parallel programs

History of SAS architectures
 Mainframe” approach
 Motivated by multiprogramming P
 Extends crossbar used for mem bw and I/O P

 Originally processor cost limited to small I/O C
 later, cost of crossbar
I/O C
 Bandwidth scales with p
M M M M
 High incremental cost; use multistage instead
 “Minicomputer” approach
 Almost all microprocessor systems have bus
 Motivated by multiprogramming, TP I/O I/O
 Used heavily for parallel computing C C M M
 Called symmetric multiprocessor (SMP)

 Latency larger than for uniprocessor
 Bus is bandwidth bottleneck $ $
 caching is key: coherence problem P P
 Low incremental cost

Example of SAS: Intel Pentium Pro Quad
CPU
P-Pr o P-Pr o P-Pr o
Interrupt 256-KB module module module
controller L2 $
Bus interface
P-Pr o bus (64-bit data, 36-bit address, 66 MHz)
PCI PCI Memory

bridge bridge controller
PCI bus
PCI bus
PCI
I/O MIU
cards
1-, 2-, or 4-w ay
interleaved
DRAM
 All coherence and

multiprocessing glue in
processor module
 Highly integrated, targeted at
high volume
 Low latency and bandwidth

Example of SAS: SUN Enterprise
CPU/mem
P P cards
$ $
$2 $2 Mem ctrl
Bus interf ace/sw itch
Gigaplane bus (256 data, 41 address, 83 MHz)
I/O cards
Bus interf ace
2 FiberChannel
100bT, SCSI
SBUS
SBUS
SBUS
 16 cards of either type:
processors + memory, or I/O
 All memory accessed over bus, so
symmetric
 Higher bandwidth, higher latency
Winterbus
2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 35
Scaling Up SAS Architecture
M M M

Network Network
$ $  $ M $ M $  M $
P P P P P P
“Dance hall” Distributed memory

 Problem is interconnect: cost (crossbar) or bandwidth (bus)
 Dance-hall: bandwidth still scalable, but lower cost than crossbar
 latencies to memory uniform, but uniformly large
 Distributed memory or non-uniform memory access (NUMA)
 Construct shared address space out of simple message transactions
across a general-purpose network (e.g. read-request, read-response)
 Caching shared (particularly nonlocal) data?
Example scaled-up SAS arch. : Cray T3E
 Scale up to 1024 processors, 480MB/s links
 Memory controller generates comm. request for nonlocal references
 No hardware mechanism for coherence (SGI Origin etc. provide this
External I/O
P Mem
$
Mem
ctrl
and NI
XY Sw itch

Message Passing Architectures
 Complete computer as building block, including I/O

 Communication via explicit I/O operations
 Programming model: directly access only private address space

(local memory), comm. via explicit messages (send/receive)
 High-level block diagram similar to distributed-memory SAS

 But comm. integrated at IO level, needn’t be into memory system
 Like networks of workstations (clusters), but tighter integration
 Easier to build than scalable SAS
 Programming model more removed from basic hardware

operations
 Library or OS intervention

Message-Passing Abstraction
Match ReceiveY, P, t
AddressY
Send X, Q, t
AddressX
Local process Local process
address space
address space
ProcessP Process Q
 Send specifies buffer to be transmitted and receiving process

 Recv specifies sending process and application storage to receive into
 Memory to memory copy, but need to name processes
 Optional tag on send and matching rule on receive
 User process names local data and entities in process/tag space too
 In simplest form, the send/recv match achieves pairwise synch event
 Other variants too
 Many overheads: copying, buffer management, protection
Evolution of Message-Passing Machines
 Early machines: FIFO on each link
 Hw close to prog. Model; synchronous ops
 Replaced by DMA, enabling non-blocking ops
 Buffered by system at destination until recv
 Diminishing role of topology

 Store&forward routing: topology important
 Introduction of pipelined routing made it less so
101 100
 Cost is in node-network interface
 Simplifies programming
001 000
111 110
011 010

Example of MP arch. : IBM SP-2
Pow er 2
CPU IBM SP-2 node
L2 $
Memory bus
General interconnection
netw ork formed fom
r Memory 4-w ay
interleaved
8-port sw itches controller
DRAM
MicroChannel bus
NIC
I/O DMA
DRAM
i860 NI
 Made out of essentially complete RS6000 workstations

 Network interface integrated in I/O bus (bw limited by I/O bus)
Example Intel Paragon
i860 i860 Intel

Paragon
L1 $ L1 $ node
Memory bus (64-bit, 50 MHz)
Mem DMA
ctrl
Driver
NI
4-w ay
Sandia’ s Intel Paragon XP/S-based Super computer
interleaved
DRAM
8 bits,
175 MHz,
2D grid netw ork bidirectional
w ith processing node
attached to every sw itch

Toward Architectural Convergence
 Evolution and role of software have blurred boundary

 Send/recv supported on SAS machines via buffers
 Can construct global address space on MP using hashing
 Page-based (or finer-grained) shared virtual memory
 Hardware organization converging too

 Tighter NI integration even for MP (low-latency, high-bandwidth)
 At lower level, even hardware SAS passes hardware messages
 Even clusters of workstations/SMPs are parallel systems

 Emergence of fast system area networks (SAN)
 Programming models distinct, but organizations converging

 Nodes connected by general network and communication assists
 Implementations also converging, at least in high-end machines


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Introduction to parallel processing

Chapter 1 from Culler & Singh

 What is Parallel Architecture?

 Why Parallel Architecture?

 Evolution and Convergence of Parallel Architectures

 Fundamental Design Issues

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 1

 A parallel computer is a collection of processing

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 2

 Role of a computer architect:

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 3

 Rapidly maturing under strong technological

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 4

 Range of performance demands

 Goal of applications in using parallel machines: Speedup

 For a fixed problem size (input data set), performance = 1/time

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 5

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 6

 Large parallel machines a mainstay in many

10 GIPS 5,000 Words

1980 1985 1990 1995

• Also CAD, Databases, . . .

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 8

 AMBER molecular dynamics simulation program

 Also relies on parallelism for high end

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 10

 Transition to parallel computing has occurred for

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 11

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 13

 Die size is growing too

 Locality in data access

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 14

• 100 million transistors on chip by early 2000’s A.D.

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 16

 Parallelism increases effective size of each level of hierarchy,

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 17

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 18

 Mid 80s to mid 90s: instruction level parallelism

 2000s: Thread-level parallelism

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 19

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 20

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 21

 Increasingly central and mainstream

 Parallelism exploited at many levels

 Focus of this class: multiprocessor level of parallelism

 Same story from memory system perspective

 Wide range of parallel architectures make sense

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 22

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 23

 Architectural enhancements to support communication and

 Compilers, libraries and OS are important bridges today

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 24

CAD Database Scientific modeling Parallel applications

Multiprogramming Shared Message Data Programming models

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 25

 What programmer uses in coding applications

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 26

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 27

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 28

Winter 2007 ENGR9861 R. Venkatesan 29

 Any processor can directly reference any memory location

 Popularly known as shared memory machines or model