Chapter 9

Sampling

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 CHAPTER OUTLINE:
1. Population, element, sample, sampling unit, and subject
2. Parameters
3. Reasons for sampling
4. Representatives of samples
5. Normality of distributions
6. The sampling process
7. Probability sampling
8. Non probability sampling
9. Determining the sample size
10.Importance of sampling design and sample size
11.Efficiency in sampling
12.Sampling as related to quantitative and qualitative studies
13.Managerial implications

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 Sampling

• The process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from the

population, so that results from analyzing the sample are
generalizable to the population.

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 Relevant Terms
• The characteristics of the population such as µ (the population mean), σ
(the population standard deviation), and σ2 (the population variance)
are referred to as its parameters. The central tendencies, the
dispersions, and other statistics in the sample of interest to the research
are treated as approximations of the central tendencies, dispersions,
and other parameters of the population.

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 Relevant Terms
• Population refers to the entire group of people, events, or things of
interest that the researcher wishes to investigate.
• An element is a single member of the population.
• A sample is a subset of the population. It comprises some
members selected from it.
• Sampling unit: the element or set of elements that is available for
selection in some stage of the sampling process.
• A subject is a single member of the sample, just as an element is a
single member of the population.

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 Census, Sampling and Survey

• Census and Sampling are methods of collecting data

from the population.
• Survey is a research strategy that collects standardised
data from a large number of respondents.
• To put the three terms together, a Sample surveys a
portion (or a subset) of a population while a Census
surveys every element in the population.

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Population and Population Elements
• Population in research refers to a complete group of
people (e.g., students, employees, teachers,
managers, patients or customers) or institutions (e.g.,
households, stores, schools, hospitals or firms) that
share some common set of characteristics.

• Population element refers to an individual member in

the population. Example: If UUM students are the
population of the study, the population element
would be the individual student.

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 Advantages of sampling
• Less costs
• Less errors due to less fatigue
• Less time
• Destruction of elements avoided

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When Is Sampling Not Used?
• Usually for a population size of fewer than
50, it is more appropriate to collect data
from the entire population, so no
sampling is required.

• It is also more appropriate to do a census

study. Example: suppose the target
population is health tourism hospitals in
Malaysia. The sampling frame lists the
names of 41 health tourism hospitals
recognised by the Ministry of Health. The
population size is small, suggesting that a
census study is possible, and all 41
hospitals should be surveyed in a census
study.
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 When Is Sampling Used?

• When we hardly know who makes up the

entire population.
• When there are cost and time constraints.
• When there is a lot of error to control and
monitor.
• When lists are rarely up to date.
• When there is a destruction of the
Sampling Unit
• When the sample data are sufficient for
decision-making.
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 The Sampling Process

• Major steps in sampling: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gs-gLeYuDZw

– Define the population.

– Determine the sample frame
– Determine the sampling design
– Determine the appropriate sample size
– Execute the sampling process

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Steps in Sampling

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Identify The Target Population

• The target population of a research topic

is defined by the researcher and needs to
be clearly identified at the beginning of a
study.

• The study should be based on a clear

understanding of who or what is of
interest, as well as the type of
information required from that
population.
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 Determine The Sampling Frame
• A sampling frame is a list that records all population elements.

• Once a target population is chosen, sampling frame availability can be

determined. Example: the sampling frame for a study that assesses UPM
students’ satisfaction level would be a list of students provided by the registrar
of UPM. If the population size of UPM students is 25,000, the sampling frame
should list 25,000 student names and contact details.

• There are also times when a sampling frame is not available. Example:
international tourists are the target population, but a sampling frame that
consists of the names of all international tourists coming to Malaysia is highly
confidential (for security reasons) and therefore not available to the researcher.

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 Determine Sampling Strategy
• The purpose of a sampling strategy is to select sampling units (e.g., female consumers)
as a sample (e.g., 500 female consumers) from the population (e.g., 10 million).

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 Probability Sampling Techniques

(1) Simple Random Sampling Technique

This follows a lucky draw procedure, where

every unit in the population has an equal
chance of being selected. First, you assign a
running number to each unit in the sampling
frame. Then, you select a unit randomly
accordingly to the number suggested by a
random table.

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(2) Systematic Random Sampling Technique

• In this procedure, the first unit is selected

at random (following random numbers).
Then, the subsequent unit is picked with
Kth interval.

• Say K=10 and the first random number is 7

(from a random table). You simply pick
sampling unit numbers 7, 17, 27, 37 and so
on.

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 (3) Stratified Random Sampling Technique

The purpose of this technique is to

provide fair representation of
subgroups. First, the population is
broken into strata (homogeneous
groups). Elements in a strata share
similar characteristics. Then, within
each strata list, a sampling unit is
picked randomly.

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(4) Cluster Random Sampling

• Population is broken into

heterogeneous groups or clusters.
Each cluster consists of units with
very different characteristics.

• For example, Malaysia has 13

states, representing 13 clusters
where each cluster has male and
female teachers. Within each
cluster, a unit is selected randomly
(following random numbers).

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 Non-probability Sampling Techniques

(1) Convenient Sampling Technique

This technique is completely based on

the convenience of the researcher.
Thus, the selection is of those who
happen to be at the data-collection
venue. Units are selected conveniently.
Elements not at the data-collection
venue have no chance of being
selected.

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2. Judgemental Sampling Technique

This technique imposes judgements

such as, for example, Malaysians
who have travelled to 10 countries
or more, as they are presumed to
have rich information on issues of
interest (e.g., travel experience).
Thus, it approaches units that meet
the criteria conveniently.

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 (3) Quota Sampling Technique

• Its purpose is to have fair representation of subgroups in

the sample.

• It is very similar to Stratified Sampling. The difference is

that Stratified Sampling selects units from each strata
randomly, while with this technique units within each
subgroup are selected conveniently until the quota is
achieved.

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 (4) Snowball Sampling Technique

The initial respondents are identified

conveniently through friends and any
subsequent respondent is referred
by a first respondent. This is most
commonly used when dealing with
rare populations (e.g., cancer
survivors).

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 Determine Sample Size (Quantitative)

1. Use a sample size calculator that is available online.

2. Following a statistical rule, the desired ratio of sample size to
construct numbers should be 20:1 (Hair, Anderson, Tatham and
Black 1998).
3. A minimum sample size of 30 is required for statistical analysis of
each category within the overall sample.
4. The desired data analysis method plays a role in determining
sample size.

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 Determine Sample Size (Qualitative)

• The sample size requirements usually follow the rule of data

saturation.

• The theoretical sample size is a general guideline. Qualitative

research that aims to understand a fairly homogeneous
population requires 12 in-depth interviews (Guest et al.,
2006) while for a fairly heterogonous population, 25-30
interviews are needed (Creswell, 2007).

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 Tradeoff between precision and confidence

We can increase both confidence and precision by increasing the

sample size

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 Sample size: guidelines

• In general: 30 < n < 500

• Categories: 30 per subcategory

• Multivariate: 10 x number of var’s

• Experiments: 15 to 20 per condition

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Sample Size for a Given Population Size

Krejcie and Morgan (1970)

http://home.kku.ac.th/sompong/guest
_speaker/KrejcieandMorgan_article.pdf

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 Select The Actual Sampling Unit

• Select the individual unit for the sample based on the

sampling procedure of the chosen sampling technique.

• Then collect data from the sampling unit (e.g., employees,

tourists or teachers) using the methods, such as
questionnaires, interviews or observations, for primary
data collection.

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Sampling For Quantitative and Qualitative Studies

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Overview

© 2012 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

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www.wiley.com/college/sekaran
Choice Points in Sampling Design

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