FOUNDATION OF

EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
Research
 “A careful consideration of study regarding a
particular concern or a problem using scientific
methods.”
Research
According to the American sociologist Earl Robert
Babbie,

 “Research is a systematic inquiry to describe,

explain, predict and control the observed
phenomenon.’
Foundation of Empirical Research
 The objective of science is that all empirical data
that has been gathered through observation,
experience and experimentation is without bias.
Foundation of Empirical Research
 The strength of any Scientific research depends on
the ability to gather and analyze empirical data in
the most unbiased and controlled fashion possible.
Foundation of Empirical Research
 How do you know if a study is empirical? Read the
subheadings within the article, book, or report and
look for a description of the research
"methodology." Ask yourself: Could I recreate this
study and test these results?
Key characteristics to look for:

Specific research questions to be answered

Definition of the population, behavior,
or phenomena being studied
 Description of the process used to study this
population or phenomena, including selection
criteria, controls, and testing instruments (such as
surveys)
IMRaD
 Another hint: some scholarly journals use a
specific layout, called the "IMRaD" format, to
communicate empirical research findings. Such
articles typically have 4 components:
IMRaD

Introduction: sometimes called "literature review"
-- what is currently known about the topic --
usually includes a theoretical framework and/or
discussion of previous studies
IMRaD

Methodology: sometimes called "research design"
-- how to recreate the study -- usually describes
the population, research process, and analytical
tools
IMRaD

Results: sometimes called "findings" -- what was
learned through the study -- usually appears as
statistical data or as substantial quotations from
research participants
IMRaD
 Discussion: sometimes called "conclusion" or
"implications" -- why the study is important --
usually describes how the research results
influence professional practices or future studies
Issues...
 Why are we interested in research?
 What is research?
 Key concepts and issues
 Introduction to validity
Why must we understand research?

 help make informed decisions

 need to produce research in career
 evaluating research in the media
 assist in classes
Why is research a valued source of
knowledge?
 Common ways of knowing…
 personal experience/intuition
 experts/traditions/authority

 scientific method
What is Science, the Scientific Method,
and Research?
 Science…
a body of established knowledge
 the observation, identification, investigation, and
theoretical explanation of natural phenomenon

usually the ultimate goal is theory

generation and verification
What is Science, the Scientific Method,
and Research?
 Theory…
a set of inter-related constructs and propositions that
specify relations among variables to explain and
predict phenomena
 should be simple, consistent with observed
relationships, tentative and verifiable
What is Science, the Scientific Method,
and Research?
 Scientific Method…
 involves the principles and processes regarded as
characteristic of or necessary for scientific
investigation
 process or approach to generating valid and
trustworthy knowledge
What is Science, the Scientific Method,
and Research?
 Research…
 the application of the scientific method
 a systematic process of collecting and logically
analyzing information (data)
 Research Methods (Methodology)…
 theways one collects and analyzes data
 methods developed for acquiring trustworthy
knowledge via reliable and valid procedures
Characteristics of Research
 objective
 precise
 verifiable
 empirical
 logical
 probabilistic
Types of Research
 Trochim’s Classifications…
 descriptive
 e.g., percentage of regular exercisers
 relational
 e.g., link between age and exercise
 causal
 e.g., effect of behavior change intervention on exercise
participation
Types of Research
 Other Common Classifications…
 basic vs. applied vs. evaluation
 experimental vs. non-experimental

 analytical vs. descriptive vs. experimental vs.

qualitative
Key Concepts and Issues
 time in research
 variables
 types of relationships
 hypotheses
 types of data
 Fallacies (false belief)
 structure or research
 deduction and induction
 ethics
 validity
Time in Research

cross-sectional vs. longitudinal

repeated measures time series

Variables
 variable…
 any observation that can take on different values
 attribute…
a specific value on a variable
Examples
Variable Attribute
age
Examples
Variable Attribute
age 18, 19, 20, etc...
Examples
Variable Attribute
Gender
Examples
Variable Attribute
Gender Male, female
Examples
Variable Attribute
satisfaction
Examples
Variable Attribute
satisfaction 1 = very satisfied

2 = satisfied

3= somewhat satisfied

4 = not satisfied

5 = not satisfied at all

Types of Variables
 independent variable (IV)…
 what you (or nature) manipulates in some way
 dependent variable (DV)…
 what you presume to be influenced by the IV
The purpose of the study was to…
 test whether the “Fair Play for Sport” curriculum is
effective in promoting moral development in youth
 test whether there are gender differences the value
placed on sport participation
 determine whether students’ perceptions of the
amount of positive, negative, and informational
feedback provided by their teachers is predictive of
their self-esteem and level of achievement

IV, DV?
Types of Relationships
 correlational vs. causal relationships

one variable causes the other

variables perform in a variable
synchronized manner

correlation does not imply causation!

(it’s necessary but not sufficient)
Types of Relationships
 patterns of relationships…
 no relationship
 positive relationship

 negative relationship

 curvilinear relationship
 + +

fitness
fitness

- -
vocabulary
- resting HR + - +
+ +
exercise intensity

performance

- -
- HR + - arousal +
Hypotheses
 hypothesis…
a specific statement of prediction
 types of hypotheses
 alternative vs. null
 one-tailed vs. two-tailed
Hypotheses
 alternative hypothesis (HA)…
 An effect (that you predict)
 null hypothesis (HO) …
 Null effect
Hypotheses

hypothesis there is a relationship between age

and exercise participation

HA there is a relationship

HO there is not a relationship

this is a two-tailed hypothesis as no

direction is predicted
Hypotheses

hypothesis an incentive program will increase

exercise participation

HA participation will increase

HO participation will not increase or

will decrease

this is a one-tailed hypothesis as a

specific direction is predicted
Types of Data
 quantitative vs. qualitative
Research Fallacies
 fallacy…
 an error in reasoning (logic or premise)
 types of fallacies described by Trochim
 ecological

 exception
Structure of Research
The "hourglass" notion of research
begin with broad questions
narrow down, focus in
operationalize
OBSERVE
analyze data
reach conclusions
generalize back to questions
 Deduction and Induction

Deduction

Induction
Ethics in Research
 balance between protecting participants vs. quest
for knowledge
 IRB provides one mechanism
 informed consent/assent
 confidentiality and anonymity

 justification of procedures

 right to services

 http://www.rsp.ilstu.edu/policy/IRB/IRB_policy.pdf
Practice Questions
1. Is the study descriptive, relational, or causal?
2. Is the study cross-sectional or longitudinal?
3. What is (are) the IV (IVs)?
4. What is (are) the DV (DVs)?
5. What are the alternative and null hypotheses?
Practice Questions
A. The purpose of the study was to examine the link
between age and physical fitness levels in terms of
muscular strength and endurance. It was
hypothesized that older and younger adults would
demonstrate significantly different fitness levels.
Practice Questions
B. The purpose of the study was to determine
whether track athletes trained to use mental
imagery performed superior to athletes who did
not receive the mental imagery training. We
expected those athletes receiving the training
would perform significantly better than the
untrained athletes.
Practice Questions
C. The study examined the effects of an acute bout of
resistance training on participants’ mood and
cognitive functioning at 1, 6 and 12 hours post
exercise. It was expected that the positive effects
on mood and cognitive function would decline
over time.
Practice Questions
D. Participants at the 2009 Chicago Marathon were
polled to determine their satisfaction with the
course. The race officials hoped for positive
reactions on the part of the runners.
Practice Questions
E. A researcher was interested in the role of caffeine
in sports performance. In cooperation with her
University’s baseball team, she randomly assigned
players to one of two conditions: (1) no caffeine or
(2) low dose (100mg). She then used performance
on a batting machine as a test. She speculated that
caffeine would positively affect performance.
Introduction to Validity
 validity…
 the best available approximation to the truth of a
given proposition, inference, or conclusion
Introduction to Validity
 types of validity…
 conclusion

 internal

 construct

 external

types of validity are cumulative

Introduction to Validity
 for each type of validity there are typical threats,
and ways to reduce them
 this provides our framework for critiquing the
overall validity (= worth) of studies
Additional Information
 Describing Refereed Articles
 Sharing Research Findings with Clients
The Validity Questions Are Cumulative...
 The Validity Questions Are Cumulative...

Is there a relationship between

In this study the cause and effect?
 The Validity Questions Are Cumulative...

In this study Is the relationship causal?

Is there a relationship between

Conclusion the cause and effect?
 The Validity Questions Are Cumulative...

Can we generalize to
In theory the constructs?

Internal Is the relationship causal?

Is there a relationship between

Conclusion the cause and effect?
 The Validity Questions Are Cumulative...

Can we generalize
In theory to other persons,
places, times?

Construc Can we generalize to

the constructs?
t
Internal Is the relationship causal?
Is there a relationship between
Conclusion the cause and effect?
 The Validity Questions are cumulative...
Validity

Can we generalize
External to other persons,
places, times?
Can we generalize to
Construct the constructs?
Internal Is the relationship causal?

Is there a relationship between

Conclusion the cause and effect?
Validity Questions are Cumulative
Validity

Can we generalize
External to other persons,
places, times?
Can we generalize to
Construct the constructs?
Internal Is the relationship causal?

Is there a relationship between

Conclusion the cause and effect?
Sampling Design
CENSUS INQUIRY

All items in any field of inquiry constitute a

‘Universe’ or ‘Population.’
A complete enumeration/Details of
all items in the ‘population’ is known as a
census inquiry.
It can be presumed that in such an inquiry,
when all items are covered, no element of
chance is left and highest accuracy is
obtained.
 Even the government
adopts this in very rare
cases such as
population census
conducted once in a
decade.
‘sample’AND sampling technique.

The selected respondents are

technically called a ‘sample’
and
The selection process is
called ‘sampling technique.
‘sample survey’

The survey conducted to obtain

sample is known as ‘sample survey’
Algebraically, let the population size
be N and if a part of size n (which is
< N) of this population is selected
according to some rule for studying
some characteristic of the
population, the group consisting of
these n units is known as ‘sample’.
 Researcher must prepare a
sample design
for his study i.e., he must plan
how a sample should be
selected and of what size
such a sample would be.
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN
Type of universe

•The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly

define the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be
studied.
•The universe can be finite or infinite.
•In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of
an infinite universe the number of items is infinite.
•The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory and
the like are examples of finite universes,
•whereas the number of stars in the sky, listeners of a specific
radio programme, throwing of a dice etc. are examples of infinite
universes.
Sampling unit
Sampling unit may be a geographical one
such as state, district, village, etc., or a
construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or
it may be a social unit such as family, club,
school, etc., or it may be an individual.
The researcher will have to decide one or
more of such units that he has to select for
his study.
Source list/ ‘sampling frame’

•It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from

which sample is to be drawn.
•It contains the names of all items of a
universe (in case of finite universe only).
•If source list is not available, researcher has
to prepare it.
•Such a list should be comprehensive, correct,
•reliable and appropriate.
•It is extremely important for the source list
to be as representative of the population as
possible.
Size of sample

This refers to the number of items to be

selected from the universe to
constitute a sample.
The size of sample should neither be
excessively large, nor too small.
It should be optimum. An optimum sample is
one which fulfills the requirements of
efficiency, representativeness, reliability and
flexibility.
Parameters of interest

In determining the sample design, one

must consider the question
of the specific population parameters
which are of interest.
For instance, we may be interested in
estimating the proportion of persons
with some characteristic in the
population.
Budgetary constraint

Cost considerations, from practical

point of view, have a major impact upon
decisions relating to not only the size of
the sample but also to the type of
sample. This fact can even lead to the
use of a non-probability sample
Sampling procedure

Finally, the researcher must decide the type of

sample he will use i.e., he must decide about the
technique to be used in selecting the items for the
sample.
CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE

Researcher must remember that two costs are

involved in a sampling analysis viz.,
•The cost of collecting the data and
•The cost of an incorrect inference/conclusion
resulting from the data.
Researcher must keep in view the two causes
of incorrect inferences viz., systematic bias
and sampling error.
A systematic bias results from errors in the
sampling procedures, and it cannot be reduced
or eliminated
by increasing the sample size.
At best the causes responsible for these
errors can be detected and corrected. Usually
a systematic bias is the result of one or more
of the following factors:
Factors causing systematic bias

1. Inappropriate sampling frame

2. Defective measuring device
3. Non-respondents
4. Indeterminancy principle
5. Natural bias in the reporting of data
Sampling errors
Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample
estimates around the true population parameters.

Since they occur randomly and are equally likely to be in

either direction, their nature happens to be of
compensatory type and the expected value of such
errors happens to be equal to zero.

Sampling error decreases with the increase in the size

of the sample, and it happens to be of a smaller
magnitude in case of homogeneous population.
The measurement of sampling error is
usually called the ‘precision of the
sampling plan’
If we increase the sample size, the
precision can be improved. But increasing
the size of the sample has its own
limitations viz., a large sized sample
increases the cost of collecting data and
also enhances the systematic bias.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

•Sample design must result in a truly representative

sample.
•Sample design must be such which results in a small
sampling error.
•Sample design must be viable in the context of
funds available for the research study.
•Sample design must be such so that systematic bias
can be controlled in a better way.
•Sample should be such that the results of the
sample study can be applied, in general, for
the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.
BASIC STEPS IN THE
RESEARCH PROCESS
Step 1: Identify the Problem
 The first step in the process is to identify a problem
or develop a research question.
 This serves as the focus of the study.
Step 2: Review the Literature

 When the problem has been identified, the

researcher must learn more about the topic under
investigation.
 This step provides foundational knowledge about
the problem area.
 The review of literature also educates the
researcher about what studies have been
conducted in the past.
Step 3: Clarify the Problem

 Many times the initial problem identified in the

first step of the process is too large or broad in
scope.
 In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the
problem and narrows the scope of the study.
 This can only be done after the literature has been
reviewed.
Step 3: Clarify the Problem

 The knowledge gained through the review of

literature guides the researcher in clarifying and
narrowing the research project.
Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and
Concepts
 Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in
the purpose statement of the study or the
description of the study.
 These items need to be specifically defined as they
apply to the study.
 Terms or concepts often have different definitions
depending on who is reading the study.
Step 4: Clearly Define Terms and
Concepts
 To minimize confusion about what the terms and
phrases mean, the researcher must specifically
define them for the study
Step 5: Define the Population
 Research projects can focus on a specific group of
people, facilities, park development, employee
evaluations, programs, financial status, marketing
efforts, or the integration of technology into the
operations.
 For example, if a researcher wants to examine a
specific group of people in the community, the
study could examine a specific age group, males or
females, people living in a specific geographic area,
or a specific ethnic group.
Step 5: Define the Population
 Literally thousands of options are available to the
researcher to specifically identify the group to
study.
 The research problem and the purpose of the
study assist the researcher in identifying the group
to involve in the study.
Step 6: Develop the Instrumentation
Plan
 The plan for the study is referred to as the
instrumentation plan.
 The instrumentation plan serves as the road map
for the entire study, specifying who will participate
in the study; how, when, and where data will be
collected.
 The instrumentation plan specifies all the steps
that must be completed for the study.
Step 7: Collect Data
 Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the
actual study begins with the collection of data.
 The collection of data is a critical step in providing
the information needed to answer the research
question.
 Every study includes the collection of some type of
data—whether it is from the literature or from
subjects—to answer the research question
Step 7: Collect Data
 Data can be collected in the form of words on a
survey, with a questionnaire, through
observations, or from the literature.
 The researcher collects these data at the first
session and at the last session of the program.
Step 8: Analyze the Data
 The researcher finally has data to analyze so that
the research question can be answered.
 In the instrumentation plan, the researcher
specified how the data will be analyzed
 The researcher now analyzes the data according to
the plan.
 The results of this analysis are then reviewed and
summarized in a manner directly related to the
research questions.
 99

RESEARCH AND
METHODOLOGY
 Research Defined and Described
100
“Research is the systematic approach to
obtaining and confirming new and reliable
knowledge”
– Systematic and orderly (following a series of
steps)
– Purpose is new knowledge, which must be
reliable

This is a general definition which applies to

all disciplines
 Notice that:
101

“… truth was not used in the definition of research”

“This concept of truth is outside of the productive

realm of thinking by researchers”
 Research is not
102

Accidental discovery :
1. Accidental discovery may occur in structured
research process
2. Usually takes the form of a phenomenon not
previously noticed
3. May lead to a structured research process to verify
or understand the observation
 Research is not … cont.
103

Data Collection
• an intermediate step to gain reliable knowledge

• collecting reliable data is part of the research

process
 Research is not … cont.
104

Searching out published research results in libraries

(or the internet)
• This is an important early step of research

• The research process always includes synthesis and

analysis
• But, just reviewing of literature is not research
 Research is…
105

1. Searching for explanation of events, phenomena,

relationships and causes
– What, how and why things occur
– Are there interactions?
2. A process
– Planned and managed – to make the information
generated credible
– The process is creative
– It is circular – always leads to more questions
106

• All well designed and conducted research has

potential application.
• Failure to see applications can be due to:
– Users not trained or experienced in the specialized
methods of economic research and reasoning
– Researchers often do not provide adequate
interpretations and guidance on applications of the
research
• Researchers are responsible to help users
understand research implications/suggestions
(How?)
 Public good
107

 Public research is a public good

 May be more rigorous and objective because it is
subject to more scrutiny
 Private research may also be rigorous
 Butresearch on a company’s product may be
questioned as biased.
 Classification of Research
108

 Before classification, we must first define types of

research
 Different criteria are used to classify research types

(All of these are somewhat arbitrary and artificial)

 Basic vs Applied Research
109
• Basic – to determine or establish fundamental facts
and relationships within a discipline or field of
study. Develop theories … (examples in
economics?)
• Applied – undertaken specifically for the purpose of
obtaining information to help resolve a particular
problem
• The distinction between them is in the application
– Basic has little application to real world policy and
management but could be done to guide applied
research
 Disciplinary, Subject-matter, and Problem-
solving Research (Johnson, 1986)

110 Relationship among research, knowledge, and use (Bonnen, 1986).

 Disciplinary
111

 designed to improve a discipline/order

 dwells on theories, fundamental relationships and
analytical procedures and techniques
 In economics, the intended users are other
economists
 Provides the conceptual and analytical base for
other economic research
 It is synergistic and complementary with subject
matter and problem-solving research
 Disciplinary… cont.
112

 Provides the foundations for applied research

 Circular as applied research reveals the
shortcomings of disciplinary research
 Examples of some economic theories?
(supply & demand, price elasticity, consumer utility
…)
 Subject-matter research
113

• “research on a subject of interest to a set of

decision makers “
• Tends to follow subject-matter boundaries within a
discipline ( eg. resource economics, production
economics, labor economics)
• Inherently multidisciplinary, drawing information
from many disciplines
– eg. consumer economic draws from psychology,
natural resource economics from biology, economic
policy from political science
 Subject-matter research … cont.
114

 Provides policy makers with general knowledge to

make decisions about various problems.
 A primary source of policy applications for
economics
 Subject-matter research is a
cornerstone/foundation in economics – it involves
direct application of economics to
contemporary/current issues.
 Problem-solving research
115

• Designed to solve a specific problem for a specific

decision maker
• Often results in recommendations on decisions or
actions
• Problem-solving research is holistic – uses all
information relevant to the specific problem
(while disciplinary research tends to be reductionist)
• Disciplinary research is generally the most “durable”
(long lasting); problem-solving research the least
durable
 Analytic vs Descriptive Research
116

 Descriptive Research – the attempt to determine,

describe, or identify something
 The intent is often synthesis, which pulls knowledge or
information together
 Analytic – the attempt to establish why something
occurs or how it came to be
 All disciplines generally engage in both
 Methodology Defined &
117
Described
Methodology and Method are often (incorrectly) used
interchangeable

• Methodology – the study of the general approach to

inquiry in a given field
• Method – the specific techniques, tools or
procedures applied to achieve a given objective
– Research methods in economics include regression
analysis, mathematical analysis, operations research,
surveys, data gathering, etc.
 The Process of Research
118
• The process is initiated with a question or problem
(step 1)
• Next, goals and objectives are formulated to deal
with the question or problem (step 2)
• Then the research design is developed to achieve
the objectives (step 3)
• Results are generated by conducting the research
(step 4)
• Interpretation and analysis of results follow (step
5)
 The Process of Research (schematic of research process)

2
5

4 3
119
WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT
 Why define the Research Problem?
121

 Defining your destination before beginning a

journey.
 It determines,
 what you will do,
 how you will do it, and

 what you may achieve!

Research Proposal Development 5/22/2019

 How is a research problem selected?
122

 Researchers interest in a topic

 National or agency priorities
 Urgency of an issue
 Availability of research funds
 Availability of supervision

Research Proposal Development 5/22/2019

 Steps in defining research problems
123

1. Identify a broad topic

2. Identify a narrow topic within the broad topic
3. Raise questions
4. Formulate objectives
 Use action-oriented words - To demonstrate; To
evaluate; To measure…

Research Proposal Development 5/22/2019

 Identifying Broad Topics
124

 Think of the BIG PICTURE

 What is the problem you are trying to solve?
 Think of something you like to learn more about
 Consult text books, journal or your supervisor
 Pick one based on:
 Interest and relevance
 Magnitude of work involved
 Level of expertise
 yours and your advisors

Research Proposal Development 5/22/2019

 Examples of Broad Topics
125

 Optimizing productivity of land and water resources

 Ensuring Food Safety & Security

 Sustaining Agricultural & Marine Environments

Research Proposal Development 5/22/2019

 From Broad Topic to Narrow Topic
126

 Examples of a narrow topic:

 Liverdisease in Goat
 Greenhouse Agriculture

 Milk Quality

 When selecting a narrow topic think how it can

contribute towards solving the BIG PROBLEM!

Research Proposal Development 5/22/2019

 Problem Tree – Keep asking
127 Why?
Unskilled Labor Inefficient Irrigation
Low Labor
Productivity

Unsuitable Climate Inefficient Water harvesting

Water Scarcity Lack of crop varieties

adapted to climate
Food Insecurity

Unsuitable Crops Farming Patterns do not

Return nutrients

Low Land Farmers can’t afford fertilizers

Productivity

Poor Proposal
Soil Farmers unaware of
Research Development 5/22/2019
best practices
PROPOSAL WRITING
 Sections
129

 Title
 Introduction
 additional sub sections if necessary
 Objectives
 Materials & Methods
 additional sub sections if necessary
 A tentative time table
 A budget .

Research Proposal Development 5/22/2019

 Title
130

 Specific & Short

 This forms the first impression about your research
 If vague – Reader will be cynical

Research Proposal Development 5/22/2019

 Introduction
131

 Convince the reader that you have identified a research problem,

worthy of investigating.
 Start very general – Broad Topic
 Highlight
 the concept
 Practical significance
 Reduce it to a narrow topic by
 Raising questions, and
 Stating answers from literature for most.
 Establish Rationale:
 Research is necessary questions for which there is no answer yet.

Research Proposal Development 5/22/2019

 Objectives
132

 Provide a clear statement of the overall question-

General objective
 Follow it with action oriented tasks - Specific
objectives.
 If more than one specific objective state them
sequentially

Research Proposal Development 5/22/2019

 Methodology
133

 State it explicitly
 Enough detail for the reader to follow
 First give an overall summary of your study design and methodological
approach.
 Then provide the methodology for each specific objective.
 Describe
 the specific design (what will you do and how, number of replicates, etc.),
 the materials and techniques that will be used, and
 the feasibility of these techniques.
 Use literature to support design, materials & techniques
 Need not repeat standard procedures – but give a reference.

Research Proposal Development 5/22/2019

 References
134

 List all references

 In alphabetical order

Research Proposal Development 5/22/2019

Scale of Measurments
Scale of Measurements
 There are four types of scales of measurements
 Nominal

 Ordinal

 Interval

 Ratio
Nominal scale
 Name
 Orange

 Yellow

 Blue

 Gender
 Male

 Female
Ordinal Scale
 Name/
 In order
 Satisfaction
 Very satisfied (1)
 Satisfied (2)

 Some how satisfied (3)

 Not satisfied (4)

 Not at all satisfied

Interval Scale
 Name
 Order
 Gape/Distance
 True zero/Absolute zero (absent)
 Temperature

 Add/subtract
Ratio
 Name
 Order
 Gape/Distance
 Absolute zero
 Equal interval
 Time

 Addition/subtraction/multiplication/division
Which statistics can be used
Which statistics can be used
Univariate Distribution
Univariate Distribution
 Univariate analysis explores each variable in a data
set, separately.
 It looks at the range of values, as well as the
central tendency of the values.
 It describes the pattern of response to the
variable.
 It describes each variable on its own.
 Descriptive statistics describe and summarize data.
Univariate descriptive statistics describe individual
variables.
 Raw Data
 Itis difficult to tell what is going on with each variable
in this data set. Raw data is difficult to grasp,
especially with large number of cases or records.
Grouped Data
 Decide on whether the data should be grouped
into classes.
 One way to construct groups is to have equal class
intervals (e.g., 1-3, 4-6, 7-9).
Frequency Distribution
 Obtain a frequency distribution of the data for the
variable. This is done by identifying the lowest and
highest values of the variable, and then putting all
the values of the variable in order from lowest to
highest.
Cumulative Distributions
 Cumulative frequency distributions include a third
column in the table (this can be done with either
simple frequency distributions or with grouped
data):
Percentage Distributions
 Frequencies can also be presented in the form of
percentage distributions and cumulative
percentages.
Why Graph? Graphing the Single
Variable
 Graphing is a way of visually presenting the data.
Many people can grasp the information presented
in a graph better than in a text format. The
purpose of graphing is to:

 Present the data

 Summarize the data
 Enhance textual descriptions
 Describe and explore the data
 Make comparisons easy
 Avoid distortion
Bar Graphs
 Bar graphs are used to display the frequency
distributions for variables measured at the nominal
and ordinal levels.
 Bar graphs use the same width for all the bars on
the graph, and there is space between the bars.
 Label the parts of the graph, including the title, the
left (Y) or vertical axis, the right (X) or horizontal
axis, and the bar labels.
Bar graphs can
also be rotated
so that the bars
are parallel to
the horizontal
orientation of
the page. For
example,
HISTOGRAM
 A histogram is a chart that is similar to a bar chart,
but it is used for interval and ratio level variables.
FREQUENCY POLYGON
 A frequency polygon is another way of displaying
information for an interval or ratio level variable. A
frequency polygon displays the area under the
curve that is represented by the values of the
variable.
PIE CHART
 Another way to show the relationships between
classes or categories of a variable is in a pie or
circle chart. In a pie chart, each "slice" represents
the proportion of the total phenomenon that is
due to each of the classes or groups.
Bivariate Analysis
Bivariate Analysis
 Bivariate analysis is the simultaneous analysis of
two variables (attributes).
 It explores the concept of relationship between
two variables, whether there exists an association
and the strength of this association, or
 whether there are differences between two
variables and the significance of these differences.
 There are three types of bivariate analysis
Types of bivariate analysis
 Numerical & Numerical
 Categorical & Categorical
 Numerical & Categorical
Numerical & Numerical
 Statistical Analysis
 Correlation

 Graphs
 Scatter plot
 Example:
 Months in Business vs Total Balance
 Weight vs Time etc

 Temperature vs humidity
Categorical & Categorical
 Statistical Analysis
 Chi² Test
 Graphs
 Bar chart, 2-Y axis plot
 Example:
 Young vs Old vs Child vs Infant
 Hard vs Soft

 Cold vs Hot
Numerical & Categorical
 Statistical Analysis
 z-test, t-test, ANOVA
 Graphs
 Bar and Line chart, 2-Y axis plot
 Example:
 Temperature vs Size(small, Medium, Large)
Validity and Reliability
 A valid measure is measuring the thing it is
intended to measure.

 A reliable measure is one that gives the same

‘reading’ when used in repeated occasions.
The Research Onion
Primary Source
 The data collection in person by researcher.
 Several methods can be used to collect primary
data.
 The choice of a method depends upon the purpose
of the study, the resources available and the skills
of the researcher.
Primary Source
 Observation
 Interviewing
 Questionnaire
Observation
 Observation is one way to collect primary data.
Observation is a purposeful, systematic and
selective way of watching and listening to an
interaction or phenomenon as it takes place.
 Participant observation
 when you, as a researcher, participate in the activities of the group being observed in the same
manner as its members, with or without their knowing that they are being observed

 Non-participant observation
 when you, as a researcher, do not get involved in the activities of the group but remain a passive
observer, watching and listening to its activities and drawing conclusions from this.
Interview
 Interview involves an interviewer reading
questions to respondents and recording their
answers
 Structured interview the researcher asks a predetermined set of
questions, using the same wording and order of questions as specified
in the interview schedule
 Unstructured interviews is the almost complete freedom they provide
in terms of content and structure. You are free to order these in
whatever sequence you wish. You also have complete freedom in terms
of the wording you use and the way you explain questions to your
respondents
Questionnaire
 A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the
answers to which are recorded by respondents.
 In a questionnaire respondents read the questions,
interpret what is expected and then write down
the answers.
 The mailed questionnaire - the most common approach to collecting
information is to send the questionnaire to prospective respondents by mail
 Collective questionnaire -One of the best ways of administering a
questionnaire is to obtain a captive audience such as students in a classroom,
people attending a function, participants in a programme or people assembled
in one place
Secondary Source
 Government or semi-government publications –
There are many government and semigovernment
organisations that collect data on a regular basis in a
variety of areas and publish it for use by members of
the public and interest groups. Some common
examples are the census, vital statistics registration,
labour force surveys, health reports, economic
forecasts and demographic information.
 Earlier research – For some topics, an
enormous number of research studies that
have already been done by others can
provide you with the required information.
 Personal records – Some people write historical and
personal records (e.g. diaries) that may provide the
information you need.
 Mass media – Reports published in
newspapers, in magazines, on the Internet,
and so on, may be another good source of
data.
SURVEY RESEARCH &
QUESTIONNAIRE
CONSTRUCTION PROCESS.
Survey Research
 Survey research is a commonly used method of
collecting information about a population of
interest. There are many different types of surveys,
several ways to administer them, and many
methods of sampling. There are two key features
of survey research:
 Questionnaires -- a predefined series of questions used to collect
information from individuals
 Sampling -- a technique in which a subgroup of the population is selected
to answer the survey questions; the information collected can be
generalized to the entire population of interest
What Is Questionnaire

 A series of written questions a

researcher supplies to subjects for their
response.
OR
 A set of printed or written questions
with a choice of answers, devised for the
purposes of a survey or statistical study.
The key principles of effective questionnaire design
Decide what
information is
Make a rough required
listing of the
questions Refine the
question
phrasing

Put the questions into an

appropriate sequence Develop the
response format

Finalize the
layout of the
questionnaire Pretest and revise
Care should be taken” While designing an
Effective Questionnaire
i. The objectives of the survey
ii. How the interview will be carried out
iii. The introduction to the questionnaire
iv. The formatting
v. Questions from the respondents’ point of view
vi. The possible answers at the same time as thinking about the questions
vii. The order of the questions
viii. The types of questions
ix. How the data will be processed
Care should be taken” While designing an Effective
Questionnaire

i. Ensure that questions are without bias

ii. Make the questions as simple as possible
iii. Make the questions very specific
iv. Steer clear of sophisticated or uncommon words
v. Avoid ambiguous words
vi. Avoid questions with a negative in them
vii. Avoid hypothetical questions
viii. Do not use words which could be misheard
ix. Ensure that fixed responses do not overlap
x. Allow for `others’ in fixed response questions
Types of Questionnaire
There are many types of questionnaire
e.g.:
 Open ended

 Closed ended

 Leading Question

 Likert Question

 Dichotomous Questions

 Rating Scale Questions

Types of Questionnaire
Open ended
 Open format questions or open-ended
questions give your audience an opportunity to
express their opinions in a free-flowing manner.
Close ended
 Multiple choice questions, where respondents
are restricted to choose among any of the given
multiple choice answers are known as closed
format or closed-ended questions.
Types of Questionnaire

 Leading Questions
Questions that force your audience for a particular
type of answer are known as leading questions. In
a leading question, all the answers would be
equally likely.
Types of questionnaire
 Likert Questions
Likert questions can help you ascertain how strongly
your respondents agree to a particular statement.
Types of Questionnaire
Dichotomous Questions
 These are simple questions that ask
respondents to answer in a yes or no.
Types of Questionnaire
Rating Scale Questions
 In rating scale questions, the respondents are
asked to rate a particular issue on a scale that
ranges between poor to good.
Methods of Collecting Data

 Qualitative Data and Quantitative

Data.
 Structured data is organized.

 unstructured data is relatively

disorganized
Types of Questions
List questions
What is your religion?

Buddhist None
Christian Other
Muslim Sikh
Types of Questions
 Category Questions
How often do you visit the shopping center, Tick any
one of the following?
 First visit

 Once a week

 Less than fortnightly to once a month

 2 or more times a week

 Less than once a week to fortnightly

 Less often
OBSERVATIONAL
RESEARCH
What is Observational Research?
 Observational research (or field research) is a type of
correlational (i.e., non-experimental) research in
which a researcher observes ongoing behavior.
 There are a variety of types of observational
research, each of which has both strengths and
weaknesses.
 Observational research is particularly prevalent in
the social sciences and in marketing.
 It is a social research technique that involves
the direct observation of phenomena in their
natural setting.
 It is typically divided into
 Naturalistic (or “nonparticipant”) observation, and
 Participant observation.

 Cases studies and Archival research are special types

of observational research.
Naturalistic (or nonparticipant)
observation
 Naturalistic (or nonparticipant) observation
has no intervention by a researcher.
 It is simply studying behaviors that occur
naturally in natural contexts, unlike the
artificial environment of a controlled
laboratory setting.
 Importantly, in naturalistic observation, there
is no attempt to manipulate variables.
 It permits measuring what behavior is really
like.
 However, its typical limitations consist in its

incapability exploring the actual causes of

behaviors, and the impossibility to determine
if a given observation is truly representative
of what normally occurs.
Participant observation
 In participant observation, the researcher
intervenes in the environment.
 Most commonly, this refers to inserting
himself/herself as a member of a group,
aimed at observing behavior that otherwise
would not be accessible.
 Also, behaviors remain relatively natural,
thereby giving the measurements high
external validity.
Case Studies
 Case Studies are a type of observational research
that involve a thorough descriptive analysis of a
single individual, group, or event.
 They can be designed along the lines of both
nonparticipant and participant observation.
Archival research
 Archival research involves the analysis of
data that already exist.
 A hypothesis is generated and then tested
by analyzing data that have already been
collected.
 This is a useful approach when one has access
to large amounts of information collected
over long periods of time.
DATA ANALYSIS &
CODING SCHEME
 Data Analysis is the process of systematically
applying statistical and/or logical techniques to
describe and illustrate and evaluate data.
 There are two type of data analysis:
 QualitativeData Analysis
 Quantitative Data Analysis
Qualitative Data Analysis
 Qualitative data refers to non-numeric information
such as interview transcripts, notes, video and
audio recordings, images and text documents.
Qualitative data analysis can be divided into the
following five categories:
Qualitative Data Analysis
 1. Content analysis. This refers to the process of categorizing verbal or
behavioural data to classify, summarize and tabulate the data.
 2. Narrative analysis. This method involves the reformulation of stories
presented by respondents .In other words, narrative analysis is the
revision of primary qualitative data by researcher.
 3. Discourse analysis. A method of analysis of naturally occurring talk and
all types of written text.
 4. Framework analysis. This is more advanced method that consists of
several stages such as familiarization, identifying a thematic framework,
coding, charting, mapping and interpretation.
 5. Grounded theory. This method of qualitative data analysis starts with
an analysis of a single case to formulate a theory.
Qualitative data analysis can be conducted
through the following three steps:
 Step 1: Developing and Applying Codes.
 Step 2: Identifying themes, patterns and
relationships.
 Step 3: Summarizing the data.
Step#1 Developing and Applying Codes.

 Coding can be explained as categorization of data.

 A ‘code’ can be a word or a short phrase that
represents a theme or an idea.
 All codes need to be assigned meaningful titles.
 A wide range of non-quantifiable elements such as
events, behaviours, activities, meanings etc. can be
coded.
 There are three types of coding:
 Open coding. The initial organization of raw data
to try to make sense of it.
 Axial coding. Interconnecting and linking the
categories of codes.
 Selective coding. Formulating the story through
connecting the categories.
Research title Elements to be coded Codes

Born leaders
Born or bred: revising The Great Made leaders
Man theory of leadership in the
21st century Leadership practice Leadership effectiveness

Wholly-owned subsidiaries
Joint-ventures
A study into advantages and Franchising
disadvantages of various entry
strategies to Chinese market Exporting
Market entry strategies Licensing

Philanthropy
Supporting charitable courses
Ethical behaviour
Impacts of CSR programs and Brand awareness
initiative on brand image: a case
study of Coca-Cola Company UK. Activities, phenomenon Brand value

Viral messages
An investigation into the ways of Customer retention
customer relationship management
in mobile marketing environment Tactics Popularity of social networking sites
Step # 2 Identifying themes, patterns and
relationships.
 In qualitative data analysis there are no universally
applicable techniques that can be applied to
generate findings.
 Analytical and critical thinking skills of researcher
plays significant role in data analysis in qualitative
studies.
 Therefore, no qualitative study can be repeated to generate the same
results.
 Nevertheless, there is a set of techniques that you can use to identify
common themes, patterns and relationships within responses of sample
group members in relation to codes that have been specified.
 Word and phrase repetitions – scanning primary data for words and
phrases most commonly used by respondents, as well as, words and
phrases used with unusual emotions;
 Primary and secondary data comparisons – comparing the findings of
interview/focus group/observation/any other qualitative data collection
method with the findings.
 Search for missing information – discussions about which aspects of the
issue was not mentioned by respondents.
 Metaphors and analogues – comparing primary research findings to
phenomena from a different area and discussing similarities and
differences.
Step# 3 Summarizing the data
 At this last stage you need to link research findings
to hypotheses or research aim and objectives.
Quantitative Data Analysis
 In quantitative data analysis you are expected to
turn raw numbers into meaningful data through
the application of rational and critical thinking.
Quantitative data analysis may include the
calculation of frequencies of variables and
differences between variables.