Electrodynamics

Electrostatics terms
• Electrostatics is a fascinating subject that has grown up in diverse areas of
application.
• Electric power transmission, X-ray machines, and lightning protection are
associated with strong electric fields and will require a knowledge of
electrostatics to understand and design suitable equipment.
• The devices used in solid-state electronics are based on electrostatics. These
include resistors, capacitors, and active devices such as bipolar and field effect
transistors, which are based on control of electron motion by electrostatic
fields.
•
 Coulumb’s Law
• It deals with the force a point charge exerts on another point charge
• By a point charge we mean a charge that is located on a body whose dimensions are much
smaller than other relevant dimensions.
• For example, a collection of electric charges on a pinhead may be regarded as a point
charge. Charges are generally measured in coulombs (C).
• One electron charge e = -1.6019 X 10 -19 C.
• Coulomb's law states that the force between two point charges Qa and Q b is:
1. Along the line joining them
2. Directly proportional to the product Qa Q b of the charges
3. Inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between them

• where Fah is the force exerted by Qa on Qb, and r1 is a unit vector pointing in
the direction from Qa to Qh, as in Fig.
 Cont…
• The force is repulsive if Qa and Qb are of the same sign; it is attractive if they
are of different signs.

• The permittivity of free space or dielectric constant is

• If we have more than two point charges, we can use the principle of superposition
to determine the force on a particular charge.
• The principle states that if there are N charges Q1, Q2. • • •. QN located,
respectively, at points with position vectors r1, r 2,. . ., rN,
 Cont…..
the resultant force F on a charge Q located at point r is the vector sum of the
forces exerted on Q by each of the charges Q1, Q2. • • •. QN .
• Mathematically

Example

Soln
 Cont…
Q
 Electric Fields
• This is the region or space of influence of charge.

• The magnitude is specified by a quantity called electric field intensity which is defined as :
electric field intensity (or electric field strength) E is the force per unit charge when
placed in the electric field.
 Types of charge distributions
1. Point charge
A charge that occupies a volume in space may be considered to be a point charge for analysis
purposes if its volume is small compared to the surrounding dimensions.

2. Line charge
A charge distributed in a linear fashion such as along a very thin wire is given in charge per unit
length. A charge density of 1 C/m means that one coulomb of charge is distributed per each
meter length of the device.

3. Surface charge
A charge distributed over a given surface such as the surface of a sphere or a sheet of paper.
A surface charge density of 1 C/m2 means that one coulomb of charge is distributed over each
square meter of the surface.
 Cont ……

4. Volume charge
A charge distributed over a volume such as the volume of a cloud. A volume charge density of
1 C/m3 means that one coulomb of charge is distributed over a one meter cube of volume:
 Cont….
Example
A charge is uniformly distributed over the following three structures such that a charge of Q =
10-9 C is distributed per unit length (1 m) of the device:
(a) A very thin wire.
(b) A conducting wire of radius d=10 mm. Assume charge can only exist on the surface of the
wire.
(c) A solid cylindrical, non conducting material of radius d=10 mm assuming the charge is
uniformly distributed throughout the volume of the material. Calculate the charge density in
each of the three structures.

Soln
a. Because the wire is very thin, the charge is distributed along the length of the wire
(conducting or nonconducting). This is an example of line charge distribution.
 Cont…..
b. Since the charge on the conductor can only reside on the surface, the charge distributes itself
(in this case uniformly) over the surface of the cylinder.

c. In this case, charges are distributed throughout the volume. The volume of a cylinder of
length 1 m and radius d is (πd2) (1). The volume charge density is
 Electric Field Intensity
• Consider, for example, a point charge which we tie down so that it cannot be moved.
Although nothing has changed in terms of the forces between the charges (remember:
charges are assumed to be stationary), it is now more convenient to view the fixed charge as
the source of the force acting on the second charge.

• If the two sides of the equation are divided by Q2, we get

• From the eqn. we observe that

 Cont….
• Since the vector R12 is arbitrary (i.e., it simply indicates where a charge Q2 might be
located), it is defined everywhere in space. F12/Q2 is a vector field that gives the force per
unit charge anywhere in space. We call this quantity the electric field intensity.

• Properties of electric field intensity

1. The electric field intensity depends on the charge and the distance R from the charge.
2. If the charge Q1 is positive, the direction of the electric field intensity is from the point
charge radially outward, since any point in space is connected with the charge along a radial line.
3. If the charge Q1 is negative , the direction of the electric field intensity is directed radially
toward the charge.
4. At equal distances from the charge, the magnitude of the electric field intensity is constant.
5. The electric field intensity varies as 1/R2 where R is the distance from the charge.
 Cont…
Example
An electron is located at a point in space:
(a) Calculate the electric field intensity everywhere in space. The charge of the electron is e.
(b) Find the force the electron exerts on a dust particle, charged with a total charge of3.2 x 10 -19
C (two protons) and located at a distance R [m] from the electron.
Soln

a.

b.
 Cont….
• For a series of charge in some region of space we can use superposition theorem to obtain
the resultant electric field intensity as

Example
 Cont…..
c
 Cont…..
• b.

• Example 2

Three equal point charges Q [C] are located as shown in Figure below . Each two charges
are connected with a very thin string to hold them in place. The string is designed to break
when a force of 0.1 N is applied.
 Cont…..
Soln
Each charge applies a force on each other charge. There are, therefore, six forces, two at each
vertex of the triangle. The tension on a string is due to all forces acting along the string. These
are shown in Figure

This force acts along the string as shown. The magnitude of any of the forces FAB, FBA, FAC,
FCA, FBC, and FCB is
 Cont…..
• The force acting on any string is therefore

• ASSIGN
1
 Cont…..
2

ELECTRIC FLUX.
If we have a point charge q that is surrounded by an intricate shape as shown then we shall
observer that the field lines do cross the elemental surfaces ds
 Cont…..

ds

• To have a universal of expression of the electric field at each elemental surfaces tdue to
varying angle of cut as shown we use the eqn.

• By so doing we have a normal electric field at the surface 𝑑𝑠Ԧ given by =

• The quantity is called the electric flux ( )
 Cont…..
• Electric flux is thus defined as the quantity of electric field intensity that emanates
perpendicularly from a surface of a unit enclosed charge

Electric Flux Density

• This is a measure of amount of electric
 0 flux per unit area
• It advantageous in that for practical purposes as it gives the electric flux without reference to
𝜀0 which is dependent on the material medium of charge.

• If we sum up the densities over some uniform region we get total flux by the formulae

=
 Cont…..
• Example

-where DQ and DL are flux densities due to the point charge and line charge, respectively,
 Cont…..
• a
 Electric field along an infinite line
• Consider the fig below of a line with linear charge density of λ C/m

• To evaluate the field at the point P, shown we must add up the contributions from all
segments of the line charge, one of which is indicated as a segment of length dx.
 Cont…..
• The charge dq on this element is given by dq = λ dx. We take advantage of symmetry
that oriented our x axis along the line charge, we may as well let the y axis pass through P,
which is a distance r from the nearest point on the line.
• The contribution of the charge dq to the y component of the electric field at P is

we integrate both sides to get our Ey

• It is convenient to use θ as the variable of integration. We know from the fig that

hence 𝑟𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑥 =
cos 2 𝜃
 Gauss Law
• By definition, this solid angle is the area da, projected on a plane perpendicular to the radius
vector, and divided by r2: Solid angles are expressed in steradians. symbolized Ω

• The total solid angle subtended by S at P is

• By integrating both sides we get steradians

•
 Cont…..

• Gauss's law relates the flux of E through a closed surface to the total charge enclosed
within the surface.
• By using this law one can find the electric field of simple charge distributions with a
minimum of effort.
• By definition, the flux of E through the element of area da is

• To find the total flux of E, we integrate over the whole surface S. Since the point P is inside
the surface, by hypothesis, the integral of da is 4𝜋
 Cont…..

this is Integral form of Gauss Law

• Applying the divergence theorem to the left-hand side,

Leading to =

Which is the differential form of Gauss Law

The Gauss law is also known as the first Maxwell's eqn. and it states in words that the volume
charge density is the same as the divergence of the electric flux density.
 Electric field along an infinite line by Gauss Law
• We construct a finite cylindrical Gaussian surface of radius r and height h, concentric
around the infinite line of charge.
• Since the charge density along the line is uniform, infinite in extent and residing along the z
axis, symmetry considerations dictate that D is in the radial 𝑟Ƹ direction and cannot depend
on φ or z.
•

• The total charge contained within the cylinder is

 Cont…..
• Since D is along r ˆ, the top and bottom surfaces of the cylinder do not contribute to the
surface integral on the left-hand side of the integral eqn

• That is, only the curved surface contributes to the integral. Hence,

NB/ The eqn. above is applicable for any infinite line of charge, regardless of its location and
direction, as long as r ˆ is properly defined as the radial distance vector from the line charge to
the observation point
 Cont…..
Example
Given that D  (2 y 2  z )iˆ  4 xy ˆj  xkˆ C / m 2 calculate the
i. volume charge density at (-1,0,3)
ii. Flux through the cube defined by 0  x  1,0  y  1,0  z  1
iii. The total charge enclosed by the cube

v   D

 (4 xy )
y
 4 x C / m3
x  1

 4C / m3
 Cont…..
Φ=  =2 C
Example
Consider a very long (infinite) line, located at a distance d =10 m above ground and charged
with a uniform, line charge density ρL = 10–7 C/m as shown in below
a. Calculate the electric field intensity everywhere in space.
b. What is the magnitude of the electric field intensity at ground level, directly below the line?
c. A second, identical line is now placed at a distance a =2 m below the first line as shown in
and is charged with a line charge density -ρL [C/m].
 Cont…..
• From Gauss’s law applied to the line

where L is an arbitrary length of the line of charge.

• Where the Gausian surface is as shown

• The electric field intensity at a distance r from the line is therefore

2 r 2 r

• which is obtained by cylindrical coordinates   Edrd  E   drd

0 0 0 0

• E · dsb and E · dsc are zero since E is perpendicular to dsb and dsc.
 Cont…..
• In vector notation (the electric field is in the positive r direction), hence we have

b. At ground level (r =10 m, directly below the line),

c.
 Cont…..
• we will use a Cartesian coordinate system and place the negatively charged line at (x 2 = 0,
y2 =d – a = 8 m) and the positively charged line at (x1 = 0, y1 = d =10 m). Ground level is
at y = 0.

• The total electric field intensity at P(x,y) is the superposition of the two fields is the
vectorially.

•
 Cont…..
• Where

At ground level, immediately below the two lines (x =0, y =0) and writing y1 =d and y2 = d – a,
the magnitude of the electric field intensity is
 Cont…..

ASSIGN
1.

2.
 APPLICATION OF ELECTROSTATICS
• CRO and CRT
• Ink jet printers

Nozzle produces a fine jet of conducting ink that separates into droplets inside a cylindrical
electrode. The potential on the electrode is either positive or zero. At a given instant, the charge
carried by a droplet that breaks off from the jet depends on the charge induced on the jet and
hence on V.
• Parallel plate capacitors
 MAGNETOSTATICS
• Def. of Terms
• Magnetostatics is the study of magnetic fields due to steady electric currents.
Magnetic Fields- A region of space around a magnet where effects of the magnet can be
felt and they are directed from north to south pole of the magnet which can be determined
by magnetic compass.
• The effect can be felt by attraction or repulsion caused on a near by magnetic material.
• Magnetic Flux Density B- is the magnetic fields passing a surface normally per unit area
• Consider a conductor carrying current in a magnetic field below exhibit that a force exists
in a magnetic field just as it was in an electric field seen earlier.
 Cont…..
• Using the Flemings Left hand rule the force displacement is as shown in the fig ang causes
the tilt in an already balanced beam above..
• The experiment can also be exhibited by the current carrying conductor shown below

• The force is given by which can also be written as

• Magnetic field intensity is the ratio of magnetic flux density to the macroscopic property of
the material given by 𝜇 where μ is called the magnetic permeability ie
 Cont…..
• The units for magnetic flux density is (newton/coulomb)/ (meter/second) or
newton/(ampere meter).
• This unit is called the tesla [T] or weber/meter2 [Wb/m2]. In a free space
 BIOT- SARVARTS LAW

• The law gives a relation for the magnetic field intensity H at a point in space due to a
current I.
• It states that the element of magnetic field intensity dH at a point P(x,y,z) due to an element
of current Idl located at a point P’(x’,y’,z’) is proportional to the current element, the angle ψ
between dl’ and the position vector R =r – r’, and inversely proportional to the distance R
squared.
• Using the cross product
 Cont…..

• Also, the current I is constant in most cases we will treat and may be taken outside the
integral.
• Alternatively, using the definition of the unit vector,

or
 Cont…..
• From the formulae we can note the following
1. The current element is assumed to be infinitely thin. A conductor of this type is called a
filament.
2. The shape of the contour (i.e., the shape of the filament or wire) is not important
except for the evaluation of the line integral.
3. we must always have a closed contour along which we integrate; otherwise, there can be
no current. However, it is permissible to calculate the contribution to the field due to a
segment of the contour, assuming the current closes somehow.
4. The space in which the current flows and the field is calculated is assumed to be of the
same material and homogeneous.

NB/
As was with the charge densities we also have line currents Idl, surface current Kds and Volume
current Jdv
 Cont…..

• Example The thin, finite-length wire in Figure below carries a current of I=1 A:

( a)Calculate the magnetic field intensity at point A shown in Figure

(b) Calculate the magnetic field intensity at point B shown in Figure
 Cont…..

• in cylindrical coordinates (r,ϕ,z), an element of length dl’=z^dz’ is identified at point

(0,0,z’) in Figure
• At point A, the coordinates are (r = 1, z =0)

The magnetic field intensity at point A due to the current in element is

 Cont…..

Recall that the integral can be achieved by use of z’= tan θ

• b.

To calculate the magnetic field intensity at point B, it is convenient to shift the r axis so that
point B is on the axis. We change the limits of integral to vary from 0-2 and still use the
Biot- Sarvat law formulae above
 Cont…..
Another expression for deriving magnetic field intensity is as shown. Consider the fig
 Cont…..

• We get

• For infinite conductor A= (0, 0, -∞) while B is at (0, 0, ∞); α1 = 180°, α2 = 0° ,hence
magnetic flux density becomes
 Cont…..
• Example2
Find H at ( - 3 , 4, 0) due to the current filament shown in Figure
 Cont…..
•
 Cont…..
Assign:
Determine H at the point P(.3,.4,0) in the field of 8A filamentary current directed inwards from
infinity to the origin of the positive x- axis and outwards to infinity along the y axis [-6.37 az]

AMPERE LAW

• Ampere's law is similar to Gauss's law and it is easily applied to determine H

when the
current distribution is symmetrical.
• The eqn above always holds whether the current distribution is symmetrical or
not but we can only use the equation to determine H when symmetrical current
distribution exists.
 Cont…..
• By applying Stoke's theorem to the left-hand side of eqn

• Given the current density per unit area is J , Ienc can also be expressed as

• We can thus conclude that From this we say that magnetostatics field are not conservative

•
Magnetic Field of a Long Wire
Consider an infinite conductor carrying current with radius a as shown
 Cont…..

• We choose I to be along the +z direction To determine H1 = H at a distance

r = r1 ≤ a, we choose the Amp`erian contour C1 to be a circular path of
radius r = r1
 Cont…..
• Amp`ere’s law takes the form

• Where I1 is the fraction of the total current I flowing throughC1.

• The current I1 flowing through the area enclosed by C1 is equal to the total current I
multiplied by the ratio of the area enclosed by C1 to the total cross-sectional area of the
wire:
 Cont…..
• Equating the two we have

• For r = r2 ≥ a, we choose path C2, which encloses all the current I. Hence,

• The plot of H vs r is as shown

 Cont…..
Example
A wire of radius a = 10 mm carries a current I = 400 A. The wire may be assumed to be
infinite in length. Calculate the magnetic field intensity everywhere in space.

Soln

For 0 < r < a: The current density in the wire is the total current divided by the cross-sectional
area of the wire

The current enclosed by a contour of radius r equals the current density multiplied by the
cross-sectional area enclosed by the contour:

For r > a the result

 Cont…..
• N/B – It can be said as a postulate that a magnetic flux entering a volume in space is
equals to flux leaving a volume in space as shown in the fig. below..

• If it were otherwise, some flux lines would either terminate in the volume or start in the
volume.
• The conclusion is that the total net flux entering any volume must be zero; that is, there
cannot be a source of flux (or a sink) inside the volume V.
• Meaning regardless of the volume, we choose, there cannot be a single magnetic pole
(north or south) inside the volume although there can be pairs of poles.
• Thus, the conclusion is that the total flux through a closed surface (enclosing a volume v)
must be zero regardless of the shape or size of the surface:
 Cont…..
Applying the divergence thoerem

Hence from Amperes Law we note the following

(1) The magnetic field is nonconservative; the closed contour integral of the magnetic field
intensity is nonzero.
(2) The magnetic field is rotational; the curl of the magnetic field intensity is nonzero.
(3) The magnetic field is solenoidal; the divergence of the magnetic flux density is zero.
(4) The magnetic flux is conserved; the total net flux through any closed surface is zero
Assign
The metal niobium becomes a superconductor with zero electrical resistance when it is cooled
to below 9 K, but its superconductive behavior ceases when the magnetic flux density at its
surface exceeds 0.12 T. Determine the maximum current that a 0.1 mm diameter niobium wire
can carry and remain superconductive {ANS =30A}
 FARADAY LAW
• The close connection between electricity and magnetism was established by Oersted, when
he demonstrated that a wire carrying an electric current exerts a force on a compass needle
and that the needle always turns so as to point in the Φˆ direction when the current is along
the zˆ direction.
• The force acting on the compass needle is due to the magnetic field produced by the
current in the wire.

• Faraday hypothesized that if a current produces a magnetic field, then the converse should
also be true: a magnetic field should produce a current in a wire.
 Cont…..
• To test his hypothesis, he conducted numerous experiments in his laboratory in London
over a period of about 10 years that we can report with some violence to history as
following three experiments.
Experiment 1; he willed wire to the left of the field and observed that current flew in the circuit
as shown below

Experiment 2; he moved the magnet to the right holding the loop still as shown and again the
current flew in the circuit
 Cont…..
• Experiment 3;
he held the loop and the magnet stationary but changed the strength of the field by means
of changing current in the electromagnet used and once again current flowed in the circuit.

• From the above three experiment we have the following terms

1. A moving loop with a time-varying area (relative to the normal component of B) in a static
m
field B; the induced emf is then called the motional emf , Vemf
2. A time-varying magnetic field linking a stationary loop; the induced emf is then called the
transformer emf , 𝑉𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑓
3. A moving loop in a time-varying field B. The total emf is given by
 Cont…..
• Stationary Loop in a Time-Varying Magnetic Field
It states a changing magnetic field induces an electric field.

• Since we shall always be equipped with B the relation above changes to

• Applying Stokes theorem to the L.H.S

N/B
• Faraday law above reduces to in a stationary field i.e conservative.
 Cont…..

Example
An inductor is formed by winding N turns of a thin conducting wire into a circular loop of
radius a. The inductor loop is in the x–y plane with its center at the origin, and connected to a
resistor R, as shown in Fig. In the presence of a magnetic field B = B0(yˆ2+zˆ3) sin ωt, where
ω is the angular frequency, find
 Cont…..
• (a) the magnetic flux linking a single turn of the inductor,
• (b) the transformer emf, given that N = 10, B0 = 0.2 T, a = 10 cm, and ω = 103 rad/s,
• (c) the polarity of Vtr emf at t = 0, and
• (d) the induced current in the circuit for R = 1 k (assume the wire resistance to be much
smaller than R)

soln
• a

b.
 Cont…..
• c.

• d.

• Moving Conductor in a Static Magnetic Field

• Consider a wire of length l moving across a static magnetic field B = zˆB0 with constant
velocity u, as shown
 Cont…..
• The conducting wire contains free electrons and it experiences magnetic force Fm given by
if the conductor moves by velocity ũ

• This magnetic force is equivalent to the electrical force that would be exerted on the particle
by the electric field Em given by

• The field Em generated by the motion of the charged particle is called a motional electric
field and is in the direction perpendicular to the plane containing ũ and B.
 Cont…..
• A conducting bar can slide freely over two conducting rails as shown in Figure below
Calculate the induced voltage in the bar If the bar slides at a velocity u = 20 ăy, m/s and
B = 4 ăz mWb/m2
 Cont…..
Moving Conductor in a Time-Varying Magnetic Field
• For the general case of a single-turn conducting loop moving in a time-varying magnetic
field, the induced emf is the sum of a transformer component and a motional component.

• Vemf is also given by the general expression of Faraday’s law

 Cont…..
• An h by w rectangular conducting loop situated in a changing magnetic field B=āy B0 sin ωt
, the normal of the loop is initially at angle α with respect to āy as shown. Find the induced
emf in the loop when the loop rotates at angular velocity ω about the x axis.
 Cont…..
• Vmemf is

• Vtremf is

• Vemf total
 Cont…..
• Using the last formulae stated above we could also solve it by

Which is the same as earlier answer.

 Cont…..
•