PRE-U STPM CHEMISTRY

SEMESTER 1
CHAPTER 2
ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOMS
Past Year Questions Analysis

CHAPTER 2 : ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

2.1 Electronic Energy Levels of Atomic Hydrogen
2.2 Atomic orbitals
2.3 Electronic configuration
Classification of elements into s, p, d and f
2.4 blocks in the Periodic Table

2013 2014
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Sem 1 Sem 1
Topic
B B,
P1 P2 P1 P2 P1 P2 P1 P2 P1 P2 P1 P2 A A
C C

CHAPTER
2: 2 5a 2 1a 2 1 1 5a 1 1a 1 18 1 18
2.1 Electronic Energy Levels of Atomic Hydrogen

According to Maxwell’s theory, an electromagnetic wave has an

electric field component and a magnetic field component.
Electromagnetic radiation is the emission and transmission of energy
in the form of electromagnetic waves, which travel 3.00 x8 10
meters per second (This constant is more well-known as speed of
light, c).,
Electromagnetic radiation is characterized by a frequency (f), and
wavelength (λ) where

speed of light (3.00 × 108 m s−1 ) c

Frequency = ;f=
wavelength (m) λ
White light consists of continuous distribution of all possible
wavelengths spanning the entire visible region of the
electromagnetic spectrum. When a narrow beam of white light is
passed through a glass prism, different wavelengths travel
through the glass at different rates. As a result, the white light
dispersed into component colours, ranging from red at the long-
wavelength end of the spectrum (700 nm) to violet at the short-
wavelength end (400 nm)
When radiation from a particular source is passed through a
spectrometer, it will be separated into its components of
different frequencies, producing a spectrum.
• i. A continuous spectrum is one where light is emitted over
a broad range of wavelengths (or frequencies); showing
emission of a wide range of energies. The spectrum is
smooth and continuous.
• ii. A line spectrum is one where exact frequencies or
wavelengths appear
appearas
as lines
lines (indicating
(indicating that
that only
only certain
certain
amounts of energy are emitted and none in between those
energies). A line spectrum is normally produced by atoms
that have been excited and is also called atomic emission
spectrum
• When a sample of hydrogen gas (H )2is subjected to an electrical
discharge, the hydrogen molecules dissociate forming hydrogen
atoms. Equation : ½ H 2(g) H (g)
• The hydrogen atoms formed, then absorb different amounts of
energy and the electron in each of the atoms will be raised to higher
energy level. Spectroscopists studying the spectrum of atomic
hydrogen had identified several series of spectral lines in different
regions of electromagnetic spectrum
a) These spectra line formed from spectroscopy are specific and
can be quantisised according to the radiation source by using
Rydberg’s Equation
λ = wavelength (in m)
n1 = ground state energy level
1 = R 1 − 1 n2 = energy level where electron fall from
H
λ 2 2
n1 n 2 compared to ground state
RH = Rydberg constant = 1.097 x 107 m-1

b) Hydrogen spectrum produced under different sources produce

different series with different characteristics. Table 2.2 below
compared the hydrogen spectrum produced under ultraviolet
and visible ray
 Ultraviolet rays Visible rays

♠ Produced Lyman series ♥ Produced Balmer series

♥ Can be used to determine
♠ Usually use to calculate
wavelength produced by each
ionisation energy of
spectra given by dispersion of
hydrogen gaseous atom
light

♠ Under emission spectrum, ♥ Under emission spectrum,

electrons from higher electrons from higher energy
energy level settled at n = 1 level settled at n = 2

♠ Series of convergence lines ♥ Series of convergence lines

produced have higher produced have lower
frequency frequency
2.1.1 The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
1. Neil Bohr suggested a model for the hydrogen atom that predicted the
existence of line spectra. He then outline 3 postulates about hydrogen
atom where :
• The H atom has only certain allowable energy levels, which Bohr
called stationary states. Each of these states is associated with a fixed
circular orbit of the electron around the nucleus.
• The atom does not radiate energy while in one of its stationary states
(atom does not change energy while
not change while the electron moves within
within an
an
orbit).
• The atom changes to another stationary state (the electron moves to
another orbit) only by absorbing or emitting a photon whose energy
equals the difference in energy between the two states:
Estate A – Estate B @ ΔE =hf or ΔE =hc / λλ
λ
• (where the energy of state A is higher than that of state B, and h is the
constant proposed by Planck’s theory where h = 6.63 x 10 -34 J s.)
• A spectral line results when a photon of specific energy (and thus
specific frequency) is emitted as the electron moves from a higher
energy state to a lower one.
• Therefore, Bohr’s model explains that an atomic spectrum is not
continuous because the atom’s energy has only certain discrete
the atom’s
levels, or states
2. The quantum number, n (1, 2, 3, . . .) is associated with the “shell”
of an electron orbit, which is directly related to the electron’s
energy: the lower the n value, the closer the orbit to the nucleus,
and the lower the energy level.
– When the electron is in the first orbit (n = 1), the orbit closest to
the nucleus, the hydrogen atom is in its lowest energy level,
called the ground state.
– If the hydrogen atom absorbs a photon whose energy equals
the difference between the first and second energy levels, the the
electron moves to the second orbit (n = 2), the next orbit further
from the nucleus. When the electron is in the second or any
higher orbit (energy level),the atom is said to be in an excited
state. The process where electron moved from ground state to
higher energy level is called as absorption
• If the H atom in the first excited state emits a photon of that same
energy, it returns to the ground state. The process where electron
dropped from higher energy level (excited state) back to ground
state is called as emission

• When a sample of gaseous Hydrogen atoms is excited, different

atoms absorb different quantities of energy. Each atom has one
electron, but so many atoms are present that all the energy levels
(orbits) are populated by electrons. When the electrons drop from
outer orbits to the n = 3 orbit (second excited state), the emitted
photons create the infrared series of lines. The visible series arises
when electrons drop to the n = 2 orbit (first excited state).
Ultraviolet Infrared
Lyman Series Passchen
Series

Visible light
Balmer Series
• When an electron drops from an outer orbit to an inner one, the
atom emits a photon of specific energy that gives rise to a spectral
line. In a given series, each electron drop, and thus each emission,
has the same inner orbit, that is, the same value of n1 in the
Rydberg equation, where the orbit radius is proportional to 2n
value.
• An energy diagram shows how the ultraviolet series arises. Within
each series the greater the difference in orbit radii, the greater the
difference in energy levels, and the higher the energy of thethe photon
photon
emitted. For example, in the ultraviolet series, in which n = 1, a
drop from n2 = 5 to n1 = 1 emits a photon with more energy
(shorter wavelength, higher frequency) than a drop from 2n= 2 to
n 1= 1. [The axis shows negative values because n = ∞ is defined as
the atom with zero energy.]
• Since Bohr’s model is a one-electron model. It works beautifully for
the H atom and for other one-electron species, such as He+ (Z = 2),
Li2+ (Z = 3) and Be3+ (Z = 4),
• One of the usefulness of Bohr’s theory, applied when calculating
the energy levels of an atom, which he derived from the classical
principles of electrostatic attraction and circular motion, where the
equation is describe as

Z2
E = − 2.18× 10−18 J ×
n2

• For hydrogen atom, since the atomic number, Z = 1. Therefore :

−18 1
E = − 2.18× 10 J ×
n2

• If the ground level (under Lyman series) n = 1, the energy at ground

state is
−18
1
E = − 2.18 × 10 J × ; E = − 2.18 ×10−18J
12
a. Note that even though the energy value is negative, however, as
mentioned above, under zero energy where E = 0 kJ when n = ∞.
In terms of magnitude, more energy will be released when
electron fall from n = ∞ to n = 1. If the ground state energy level is
higher, lesser energy will be released.
b. Derivation from equation above allowed us to find the energy
difference between two energy level, where

∆E= En2 − En1 @

1 1
−18 J× −18 J×
∆E= − 2.18×10 − − 2.18×10 2
2
n
2 n
1

1 1
−18 J×
∆E= 2.18×10 2
− 2
n
1 n2
c. Further derivation from equation (b) also allowed us to find the
wavelength produce in absorption / emission process. Using
Planck’s equation, where
ΔE = hf or ΔE = hc / λ

−18
1 hc1
2.18× 10 J× −
= ;
2
n 1 n2 2
λ
rearrangeand
rearrange andsubstitute
substitute
−18
1 2.18× 10 J × 1 1
= − 34
−
λ (6.63× 10 )(3.00 × 108 ) n12 n 22
1 = 1.10 × 107 × 1 − 1
λ n 21 n 22
• Ionisation energy of one mole of electron in hydrogen atom can
also be calculated using Bohr’s equation.
H (g) H + (g) + e- ΔH = + x kJ mol-1 (Ionisation energy)
• In order to remove an electron from hydrogen atom, electron must
at least reached the convergence limit of the energy level n = ∞.
Consider the ground state energy level of Lyman series, n = 1.
1 1
−18 J×
∆E = 2.18× 10 2
− 2
;
n1 n2
1 1
−18 J× −
∆E = 2.18× 10 ; ∆E = 2.18× 10−18 J
12 ∞2
1 kJ
For 1 mol e − ; ∆H = ∆E × NA × 3 ;
10 J
1 kJ
∆H = 2.18× 10−18 J × (6.02× 1023) × ; ∆H = 1310 kJ −1
mol
103 J
• To remove 1 mol of electron from ground state, n1 = 1 to
convergence limit, n 2= ∞, a total of 1310 kJ is required.
Example 1 : Calculate the wavelength of the Example 2 : Calculate the wavelength of the
first line of Lyman series third line of Balmer series
In Lyman series, n1= 1 In Balmer series, n1= 2
First line in series, so n2 = 1 + 1 = 2 First line in series, so n2= 2 + 3 = 5
1= R 1 − 1 1= R 1 − 1
H
λ
H
λ n21 n 22 n21 n 22

1 = 1.097 ×107 1 − 1 1 = 1.097 ×107 1 − 1

λ 12 22 λ 22 52
λ = 122 nm λ = 434 nm
Example 3 : Calculate the wavelength of the Example 4 : Calculate the wavelength of the
forth line of Paschen series last line of Balmer series
In Passchen series, n1= 3 In Balmer series, n1= 2
First line in series, so n2 = 3 + 4 = 7 Last line in series, so n2= 2 + ∞ = ∞
1= R 1 − 1 1= R 1 − 1
H
λ
H
n21 n 22 λ n21 n 22

1 = 1.097 ×107 1 − 1 1 = 1.097 ×107 1 − 1

λ 32 72 λ 22 ∞2
λ = 1005 nm λ = 365 nm
Example 5 : Calculate the frequency of the Example 6 : Calculate the frequency of the last
second line of Paschen series line of Lyman series
In Passchen series, n1= 3 In Lyman series, n1= 1
Second line in series, n2 = 3 + 2 = 5 last line in series, so n2= 1 + ∞ = ∞

1= R 1 − 1 1 = R 1 − 1
H
λ H
n21 n22 λ n12 n 22

1 = 1.097 ×107 1 − 1 1 = 1.097 ×107 1 − 1

λ 32 52 λ 12 ∞2

1 / λ = 7.80 x 105m -1 1 / λ = 1.097 x 107m -1

f = c x (1 / λ) = (3.0 x 108)(7.80 x 10 5) f =c x (1 / λ) =(3.0 x 108)(1.097 x 10 7)
f = 2.34 x 1014 s-1 f = 3.29 x 1015 s-1
c) the third line of Lyman series d) the fifth line of Balmer series

In Lyman series, n1= 1 In Balmer series, n1= 2

First line in series, so n2 = 3 + 1 = 4 Fifth line in series, so n2= 2 + 5 = 7

1= R 1 − 1 1 = R 1 − 1
H
λ H
n21 n22 λ n12 n 22

1 = 1.097 ×107 1 − 1 1 = 1.097 ×107 1 − 11

λ 12 42 λ 22 7 2

1 / λ= 1.028 x 107m -1 1 / λ = 2.519 x 10 7m -1

f = c x (1 / λ) f = c x (1 / λ)
= (3.0 x 108)( 1.028 x 10 7) = (3.0 x 108)( 2.519 x 107)
f = 3.09 x 1015 s-1 f = 7.56 x 1014 s-1
Example 3 : Using Bohr’s Equation, calculate the energy required to cause the emission
of spectral line below
a) the fifth line of Lyman series b) the first line of Balmer series
In Lyman series, n1 = 1 In Balmer series, n1= 2
First line in series, so n2 = 1 + 5 = 6 First line in series, so n2 = 2 + 1 = 3
1 1 1 1
−18 J ×
−
J ×
−18
∆E = 2.18× 10 ∆E = 2.18× 10 −
n12 n2 n12 n2
2 2

1 1 1 1
−18 J × − ∆E = 2.18× 10 −18 J × −
∆E = 2.18× 10 2
1 2
6 2
2 32
ΔE = 2.12 x 10-18 J / e- ΔE = 3.03 x 10-19 J / e-

c) the third line of Passchen series d) the last line of Passchen series
In Passchen series, n1 = 3 In Balmer series, n1= 3
First line in series, so n2 = 3 + 3 = 6 Last line in series, so n2 = 3 + ∞ = ∞
1 1 1 1
−18 J ×
∆E = 2.18× 10
−18 J ×
− ∆E = 2.18× 10 − 2
n12 n2 2 n12 n2
1 1 1 1
−18 J × − ∆E = 2.18× 10 −18 J × −
∆E = 2.18× 10
3 2
6 2
32
∞2
ΔE = 1.82 x 10-19 J / e- ΔE = 2.42 x 10-19 J / e-
2.2 Atomic Orbital
• The position of electrons cannot be specified as electron behaves like
wave as it extended it space. Werner Karl Heisenberg, then formulated
what is now known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle: it is
impossible to know simultaneously both the momentum and the position
of a particle with certainty.
– However, Bohr’s theory had made a significant contribution to our
understanding of atoms, and his suggestion that the energy of an
electron in an atom is quantized. This concept is the perfected by an
Austrian physicist, Erwin Schrödinger, through his well well-known
-known
equation – Schrödinger’s equation, where the energy of atom can be
calculate.
– Even though Schrödinger equation specifies the possible energy states
the electron can occupy in a hydrogen atom, however, it cannot pin-
point the location of electron in an atom. Therefore, to counter this
problem, we replaced with the term orbital, a region with high
probability to find an electron.
• An atomic orbital is specified by three quantum numbers. One is related
to the orbital’s size, another to its shape, and the third to its orientation
in space. The quantum numbers have a hierarchical relationship: the
size-related number limits the shape-related number, which limits the
orientation-related number
– The principal quantum number (n) (better known as shell) is a positive
integer (1, 2, 3, and so forth). It indicates the relative size of the orbital
and therefore the relative distance from the nucleus of an atom.
– The angular momentum quantum number(l) is an integer from 0 to n –
1. It is related to the shape of the orbital and is sometimes called the
orbital shape (or azimuthal) quantum number. Note that the principal
quantum number sets a limit on the values for the angular momentum
quantum number; that is, n limits l.
• For an orbital (shell) with n = 1, l can have a value of only 0.
• For orbitals (shell) with n = 2, l can have a value of 0 or 1
• For orbitals (shell) with n = 3, l can be 0, 1, or 2; and so forth.
Note that the number of possible l values equals the value of n
• The magnetic quantum number (m )l is an integer from [–l] through
0 to [+l]. It prescribes the orientation of the orbital in the space
around the nucleus (or simple, number of orbitals presence in l).
The possible values of an orbital’s magnetic quantum number are
set by its angular momentum quantum number.
• For (l = 0), magnetic quantum number, (ml ) = 0 [therefore 1 orbital]
• For (l = 1), magnetic quantum number, (m l) = –1, 0, +1 [therefore 3
orbitals]
• For (l(l = 2), magnetic quantum
2), magnetic number,(ml))== –2, –1,
quantum number, –1, 0,
0, +1, +2
+1, +2
[therefore 5 orbitals]
• The electron spin quantum number (m s ) ~ represents the
assumption of electrons act like tiny magnets. According to
electromagnetic theory, a spinning charge generates a magnetic
field, and it is this motion that causes an electron to behave like a
magnet. Therefore, in each m l , two oppositely spin quantum is filed
accordingly and has a value of +½ and –½, and are usually denote as
↑ (for +½) and ↓ (for –½)
• The energy states and orbitals of the atom are described with
specific terms and associated with one or more quantum numbers
– Level. The atom’s energy levels, or shells, are given by the n
value: the smaller the n value, the lower the energy level and
the greater the probability of the electron being closer to the
nucleus. [n = 1 is the closest to nucleus, followed by n = 2, 3
and so forth]
– Sublevel. The atom’s levels contain sublevels, or subshells,
which
which designate
designatethe
theorbital shape. Each
orbitalshape. Each sublevel has aa letter
sublevelhas letter
designation:

l 0 1 2 3 4 5
Name of sublevel
s p d f g h
(orbital)
• Orbital. Each allowed combination of n, l, and m
l values specifies
one of the atom’s orbitals. Thus, the three quantum numbers that
describe an orbital express its size (energy), shape, and spatial
orientation. You can easily give the quantum numbers of the
orbitals in any sublevel if you know the sublevel letter designation
and the quantum number hierarchy

Energy Sub- No of Atomic Orbital

orbital, m l
level, n level, l orbital Designation

0 0 1 1s
1
0 0 1 2s
2 1 –1, 0 +1 3 2p x, 2p y , 2p z,
0 0 1 3s
3 1 –1, 0 +1 3 3p x, 3p y , 3p z,
2 –2, –1, 0 , +1 , +2 5 3d xy , 3d yz , 3d xz , 3d x2-y2 , 3d z2
2. Shape of each orbitals
• The s Orbital– An orbital with l = 0 has a spherical shape with the
nucleus at its center and is called an s orbital

• The p orbitals
orbitals – An orbital with l = 1, called
orbital with called aa pp orbital,
orbital, has
hastwo
two
regions (lobes)of high probability, one on either side of the nucleus.
The nucleus lies at the nodal plane of this dumbbell-shaped orbital
as described in diagram below
• The d Orbital – An orbital with l = 2 is called a d orbital. There are
five possible m l values for the l = 2 value: –2, –1, 0 , +1 , +2. Thus, a
d orbital can have any one of five different orientations, as describe
in diagram below

• Orbitals with Higher l values– Orbitals with l = 3 are f orbitals and

must have a principal quantum number of at least n = 4. There are
seven f orbitals (2 l + 1 = 7), each with a complex, multi-lobed shape
• Special case of hydrogen atom – The
energy state of the H atom depends only
on the principal quantum number, n = 1.
When an electron occupies an orbital with
a higher n value, it occurs from the
nucleus, so the atom is higher in energy.
But the H atom is a special case because it
has only one electron. The energy states of
all other atoms depend on both the n and l
values of the occupied orbitals because of
additional nucleus – electron attractions
and electron – electron repulsions. In
other words, for the H atom only, all four
orbitals in n = 2 (one 2s and three 2p) have
the same energy, while all nine orbitals in
n = 3 (one 3s, three 3p, and five 3d) have
the same energy and so forth.
2.3 Electronic configuration
• Electron configuration of the atom shows how the electrons are
distributed among the various atomic orbitals, in order to
understand electronic behaviour of that atom. Using the principle
of n, l, ml and ms learned earlier, it allows us to understand how the
arrangement of electrons occurs in many-electrons atom.
• The arrangement of electrons in its orbitals are guided under 3
basic rule and principles, which are Aufbau's Principle, Pauli
Exclusion's Principle
Principle and
andHund's Rule.
• Aufbau's principle stated that electrons are filled up in orbitals
from the lowest energy orbital available. This will results in ground-
state electron configurations to build up eventually
 • Pauli Exclusion's Principle ~ an atomic orbital can hold a
maximum of two electrons with opposing quantum spins. From
the quantum spin number, we understand that electrons
behaviour resemble to that of a magnet when spinning charge
generates a magnetic field. In general, we represent a positive
spin quantum, m s = +1/2 as ↑ (sometimes ) ; while a negative
spin quantum, ms = -1/2 as ↓ (sometimes ).

Correct Incorrect

2 electrons occupied 2 electrons occupied 3 electrons occupied

2 electrons occupied an an orbital with same an orbital with same an orbital with
orbital with opposite spin spin spin different spin
• Hund's Rule ~ when orbitals of equal energy are available, the
electron configuration of lowest energy has the maximum number
of unpaired electrons with parallel spins. In order to fulfil Hund's
rule, sub-shell must have at least 2 or more orbitals. Therefore, p-
orbitals, d-orbitals and f-orbitals are filled according to Hund's rule.
For example, in filling 2 and 3 electrons in p-orbitals and filling 5
and 7 electrons in d-orbitals

Filling in p - orbitals Filling in d - orbitals

Filling in 2 electrons in p-orbitals Filling in 5 electrons in d-orbitals (more stable)

Filling in 3 electrons in p-orbitals Filling in 7 electrons in d-orbitals (After positive spin is first
(more stable) filled, negative spin is then filled to each orbital)
 No Electronic
Element Orbital diagram
of e- configuration
Hydrogen
H 1 ____ 1s 1
1s
Helium
He 2 ____ 1s 2
1s
Lithium
Li 3 ____ ____ 1s 2 2s1
1s 2s
Beryllium
Be 4 ____ ____ 1s 2 2s2
1s 2s
Boron
B 5 ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ 1s 2 2s2 2p1
1s 2s 2p
Carbon
C 6 ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ 1s 2 2s2 2p2
1s 2s 2p
Nitrogen
N 7 ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ 1s 2 2s2 2p3
1s 2s 2p
 No Electronic
Element Orbital diagram
of e- configuration
Oxygen
O 8 ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ 1s 22s2 2p 4
1s 2s 2p
Fluorine
F 9 ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ 1s 2 2s2 2p5
1s 2s 2p
Neon
Ne 10 ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ 1s 2 2s2 2p6
1s 2s 2p
Sodium
Sodium
Na 11 ____
____ ____
____ ____
________ ____
____ ________
____ 1s 222s22 2p 663s11
1s 2s 2p 3s
Magnesium
12 ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ 1s 22s2 2p 63s2
Mg
1s 2s 2p 3s
Aluminium
Al 13 ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ___ ___ ___ 1s 2 2s2 2p 63s2 3p 1
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
Silicon
Si 14 ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ 1s 2 2s2 2p 63s2 3p 2
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
 No of
Element Orbital diagram Electronic configuration
e-

Phospho- ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ 1s 2 2s2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 3
rous, P 15 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

Sulphur
S 16 ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ 1s 2 2s2 2p 63s2 3p 4
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

Chlorine
Cl 17 ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ 1s 2 2s2 2p 63s2 3p 5
Cl 1s
1s 2s
2s 2 p2 p 3s 3s 3p 3p

Argon
Ar 18 ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ 1s 2 2s2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 6
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

Potassium
K 19 ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ___ 1s 22s2 2p 63s2 3p 64s1
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s

Calcium
Ca 20 ____
1s
____
2s
____ ____ ____
2p
____ ____ ____ ____
3s 3p
___
4s
1s 22s2 2p 63s2 3p 64s2
1s 22s2 2p 63s2 3p 63d 14s2

1s 22s2 2p 63s2 3p 63d 24s2

1s 22s2 2p 63s2 3p 63d 34s2

1s 22s2 2p 63s2 3p 63d 54s1

1s 22s2 2p 63s2 3p 63d 54s2

1s 22s2 2p 63s2 3p 63d 64s2

1s 22s2 2p 63s2 3p 63d 74s2

1s 22s2 2p 63s2 3p 63d 84s2

1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d104s 1

1s 2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d104s 2

a. Note that from Scandium to Vanadium, each electron is filled
according to Hund's rule, with a single positive spin electron is
filled in each 3d-subshells.
b. When expressing the electronic configuration for Chromium, 24Cr,
the valence electron of Cr is filled as 3d5 4s 1 instead of 3d4 4s2 .

c. This is due to, according to Hund's rule, half-filled 3d orbitals have

extra stability, compared to a partial-filled 3d orbital.
• Another anomaly of filling the electronic configuration occur on the
element copper, Cu. Supposedly, After nickel, 28Ni is filled as
1s22s22p63s23p63d84s2, Cu should be filled : 1s2 2s
2 2p
6 3s 2 3p
6 3d
9 4s
2.

However, due to full-filled 3d orbitals have extra stability

compared to a partial-filled 3d orbitals, henceforth valence
electrons of Cu is filled as 10
3d 14s .
2.3.1 Electronic Configuration of Ions
1. Ions are formed when an atom or molecule donate / received
electron(s). Ions can be positively charged or negatively charged. A
positively charged ion is also known as cation, while a negatively
charged ion is also known as anion. Table below compared the
properties of the formation for both cation and anion

Ions Cation (Positively charged ion) Anion (Negatively charged ion)

Occur when Electron(s) are donated Electron(s) are received

Formation of Na → Na
+ + e- F + e- → F-
+1 and -1 1s22s2 2p6 3s1 1s22s2 2p6 1s22s2 2p5 1s22s2 2p6

Formation of Mg → Mg
2+ + 2e- O + 2e- → O2-
+2 and -2 1s22s2 2p6 3s2 1s22s2 2p6 1s22s2 2p4 1s22s2 2p6
 2. From the example above, it is shown that, when electron(s) are
donated, electron(s) are first removed from higher energy level,
and conversely when electron(s) are received, electron(s) are filled
from the lower possible energy level. Most of the main group
elements donate and received electron(s) to achieve a stable
valence electronic configuration of ns2 np6 (also known as octet
configuration)
Al 3+ : 1s22s2 2p6 P3- 1s22s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
[Since electronic configuration of [Since electronic configuration of
aluminium is 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 1, when 3 aluminium is 1s 22s 22p 63s 23p 3, when 3
electrons are removed, it shall be removed electrons are added, it shall be added to 3p
from 3p, then 3s] orbital as its not yet complete]

V3+ 1s22s22p63s23p63d2 N3- 1s22s22p6

[Since electronic configuration of [Since electronic configuration of nitrogen
vanadium is 1s22s22p63s23p63d 34s2 when 3 is 1s22s22p3, when 3 electrons are added, it
electrons are removed, it shall be removed shall be added to 3p orbital as its not yet
from 4s, then 3d] complete]
Fe2+ 1s22s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 S4- 1s22s22p63s23p64s2
[Since electronic configuration of iron is [Since electronic configuration of sulphur
1s22s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2 1s22s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
…………………………….…when 2 is …………….,,,,,,,,,,,,, when 4 electrons
electrons are removed, it shall be are added, it shall be added to
4s
removed from …………….] 3p
…………. 4s
and ……….. orbitals]
Ga 4+ 1s22s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d9 Br- 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6
[Since electronic configuration of gallium [Since electronic configuration of Br is
22s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d104s2 4p1 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p5
1s
is …………………………….……….. when ………………………………………,
4 electrons are removed, it shall be when 1 electrons are added, it shall be
4p , 4s , then 3d
removed from ………….…………….] 4p orbitals]
added to ………….

Mn 4+ 1s22s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 Cl - 1s22s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

Ca + 1s22s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 O 3- 1s22s22p63s1

Co 3+ 1s22s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 F- 1s22s22p6

2.4 Classification of elements into s, p, d and f blocks in the Periodic
Table