EC 407 COMPUTER

COMMUNICATION
Module I
 Introduction to computer
communication
• Why computer Communication
• It enhances communication - Instant
messaging, real time, multimedia.....
• Information sharing - traditional reference
materials.....
• Resource sharing – H/W and software......
• It boosts storage capacity
• It makes file sharing easier
 Why computer Communication
• high reliability by having multiple sources of
supply.
• greater flexibility because of possibility to
connect devices from various vendors.
• cost reduction by downsizing to
microcomputer-based networks instead of
using mainframes.
• Person-to-person communication email,
videoconference, newsgroups.
• Interactive entertainment
• Demerits
• It poses security issues -huge number of people
would be using same network, hacking, Phishing
• It allows for more presence of computer viruses
and malware
• It lacks independence
• It lacks robustness – issue with n/w or server
may effect entire system
• Initial cost, technically efficient handler/admin
• Addiction, illegal activities
 Introduction
• Broadcast networks are networks with single
communication channel shared by all the
machines.
• Short messages (packets) sent by any machine
are received by all others.
• Multicasting is sending a packet to a subset of
the machines.
• Point-to-point networks consist of many
connections between individual pairs of
machines
Transmission modes
 Transmission modes
• Serial and parallel transmission

• [Data Communications and Networking, 4/e, Behrouz A

Forouzan]
• [Achyut S.Godbole Data Communication and Networking]
 Parallel Transmission

• Parallel transmission allows transfers of

multiple data bits at the same time over
separate media
• In general, parallel transmission is used with a
wired medium that uses multiple,
independent wires
• Furthermore, the signals on all wires are
synchronized so that a bit travels across each
of the wires at precisely the same time
Parallel Transmission
 Parallel Transmission
• High speed: it can send N bits at the same time
• Expensive due to several wires
• Need higher accuracy for pulses which cannot
be guaranteed for long distance.
• Different pulses may traverse at different
speed resulting in skew.
 Parallel Transmission
• Not used for long distance.
• Used inside computer system where all parallel
wires have identical properties.
• It may seem that anyone would choose parallel
transmission for high speeds
– However, most communication systems use serial
mode
• There are two main reasons
– First, serial networks can be extended over long
distances at much less cost
– Second, using only one physical wire means that there
is never a timing problem caused by one wire being
slightly longer than another
 Serial Transmission
• One bit follows another so only one channel
• Lower cost due to single channel
• Synchronization between clock of Tx and Rx
essential, else exact sampling of pulse(middle)
will be effected resulting in error
• It can be of three types
• Asynchronous
• Synchronous
• Isochronous
 Asynchronous Transmission
• Timing of signal is not important – any time
(Rx must be ready to receive) the Tx can send
any character.
• Sync. Between Tx and Rx needed only for each
character (normally 1 byte) and not entire
duration.
• It is done using one START (normally 0) and
one or more STOP (normally 1) bits.
• Once start bit is received, the Rx starts the CLK
so that it can read bits till it finds a stop bit
Asynchronous Transmission
 Asynchronous Transmission
• Asynchronous here means "asynchronous at
the byte level, but the bits are still
synchronized; their durations are the same.
 Synchronous Transmission
• Whole block of data is transferred at once
rather than byte by byte.
• The block may contain single character or
multiple or an image pixel values etc….
• The bit stream is combined into longer
"frames," which may contain multiple bytes
• Bits are send one after another without start
or stop bits or gaps. It is the responsibility of
the receiver to group the bits.
Synchronous Transmission
 Synchronous Transmission
• Each data block is preceded by a unique
synchronizing pattern (SYN) to perform
synchronization.
• SYN represents the start of a block.
• Multiple SYN sometimes send as the bit
pattern for SYN can be obtained by
concatenating some characters.
 Synchronous Transmission
• Timing becomes very important, therefore,
because the accuracy of the received information
is completely dependent on the ability of the
receiving device to keep an accurate count of the
bits as they come in.
• The advantage of synchronous transmission is
speed. With no extra bits or gaps to introduce at
the sending end and remove at the receiving end,
and, by extension, with fewer bits to move across
the link, synchronous transmission is faster than
asynchronous transmission.
Comparison
 Problem
• Compare the time taken for sending overhead
bits in asynchronous and synchronous system
for 100000 characters at 9.6 kbps.
• Use a total of 48 bits for SYN,STX(start) and
ETX(end) for each block of size 1200
characters.
 Solution
• Asynchronous overhead
• No of overhead bits=2 bits/ chara =20000 bits
• At 9.6 kbps, it will take 200000/9600 =20.83 s
• No of block = 100000/1200=250/3
• No of overhead bits=250/3 x 48 = 4000
• Time = 4000/9600 =0 .4167 s
 Isochronous Transmission
• An isochronous data transfer system combines
the features of an asynchronous and
synchronous data transfer system. An
isochronous data transfer system sends blocks
of data asynchronously, in other words the
data stream can be transferred at random
intervals.
• Commonly used for where data must be
delivered within certain time constraints, like
streaming video.
Transmission modes
 Simplex Mode
• Communication is unidirectional, as on a one-
way street.
• Can use the entire capacity of the channel to
send data in one direction
• Eg keyboard, commercial broadcast channel
 Half duplex
• Data can be transmitted in both directions but
not at the same time.
• When one device is sending, the other can
only receive, and vice versa.
• At a certain point, it is actually a simplex
channel whose transmission direction can be
switched.
• The half-duplex mode is used in cases where
there is no need for communication in both
direction at the same time.
• Eg. Walkie-talkie with a “push-to-talk” button
Half duplex
 Full-Duplex
• Communication channel is able to transmit
data in both directions.
• Either the link must contain two physically
separate transmission paths, one for sending
and other for receiving or the capacity is
divided between signals travelling in both
directions
 NETWORKS
• A network is a set of devices (often referred to
as nodes) connected by communication links.
A node can be a computer, printer, or any
other device capable of sending and/or
receiving data generated by other nodes on
the network.
• Distributed Processing - a task is divided
among multiple computers. Instead of one
single large machine being responsible for all
aspects of a process. Eg. Search engine
 Network Criteria
• Performance - transit time and response time,
throughput and delay.
• Reliability - frequency of failure, the time it
takes a link to recover from a failure, and the
network's robustness in a catastrophe (sudden
damage).
• Security - protecting data from unauthorized
access, protecting data from damage and
development, and implementing policies and
procedures for recovery from breaches and
data losses.
 Physical Structures
• Type of Connection
• Point-to-point - provides a dedicated link
between two devices.
• The entire capacity of the link is reserved for
transmission between those two devices.
• Most point-to-point connections use an actual
length of wire or cable (any other channel) to
connect the two ends, eg.- telephone call......
 Physical Structures
• Multipoint (multidrop)
• More than two specific devices share a single link
• The capacity of the channel is shared, either
spatially or temporally. If several devices can use
the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection. If users must take turns, it is a
timeshared connection.
• Such N/W are called broadcast N/W - mmessages
(packets) sent by any machine are received by all
others.
• Multicasting is sending a packet to a subset of
the machines.
Physical Structures
 Physical Topology
• The way in which a network is laid out
physically.
• The geometric representation of the
relationship of all the links and linking devices
(usually called nodes) to one another.
 Mesh Topology
• Every device has a dedicated point-to-point
link to every other device.

• n(n -1) /2 duplex links

 Mesh Topology
• Dedicated links guarantees that each connection
can carry its own data load, thus eliminating the
traffic problems that can occur when links must
be shared by multiple devices.
• Robustness - If one link becomes unusable, it
does not incapacitate the entire system.
• Privacy or security - When every message travels
along a dedicated line, only the intended
recipient sees it.
• Physical boundaries prevent other users from
gaining access to messages.
• Being point-to-point links make fault
identification and fault isolation easy.
 Mesh Topology
• Disadvantages are amount of cabling and the
number of I/O ports required.
• Installation and reconnection are difficult.
• The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than
the available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors)
can accommodate.
• The hardware required to connect each link (I/O
ports and cable) can be expensive.
• So a mesh topology is usually implemented in a
limited fashion, as a backbone connecting the
main computers of a hybrid network that can
include several other topologies.
 Star Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point
link only to a central controller, usually called
a hub.
• The devices are not directly linked to one
another.
• Star topology does not allow direct traffic
between devices.
• The controller acts as an exchange: If one
device wants to send data to another, it sends
the data to the controller, which then relays
the data to the other connected device
Star Topology
 Star Topology
• less expensive than a mesh topology as each
device needs only one link and one I/O port to
connect it to any number of others.
• Easy to install and reconfigure.
• Far less cabling needs to be housed, and
additions, moves, and deletions involve only
one connection: between that device and the
hub.
• Robustness - If one link fails, only that link is
affected. All other links remain active.
• Easy fault identification and solution
 Star Topology
• If the hub goes down, the whole system is
dead.
• More cabling is required in a star than in some
ring or bus.
• The star topology is used in local-area
networks (LANs)
 Bus Topology
• A bus topology uses multipoint link.
• One long cable acts as a backbone to link all
the devices in a network.

• Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop

lines and taps.
 Bus Topology
• As a signal travels along the backbone,
attenuation occurs and signal becomes weak.
Hence there is a limit on the number of taps
distance between those taps.
• End points must be properly terminated.
• fault in the bus cable stops all transmission.
• Difficult to add new devices.
• Difficult reconnection and fault isolation.
• Signal reflection at the taps can cause
degradation in quality.
• Ease of installation.
• Less cabling than mesh or star topologies.
 Ring Topology
• Each device has a dedicated point-to-point
connection with only the two devices on
either side of it.
• A signal is passed along the ring in one
direction, from device to device, until it
reaches its destination.
• Each device in the ring incorporates a
repeater. When a device receives a signal
intended for another device, its repeater
regenerates the bits and passes them along.
Ring Topology
 Ring Topology

• A ring is relatively easy to install, reconfigure

and resolve fault.
• To add or delete a device requires changing
only two connections.
• Maximum ring length and number of devices
is a constrain.
• Break in the ring can disable the entire
network
Hybrid Topology
• Network Models
• The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection)
model defines a seven-layer network
• Internet model defines a five-layer network
• Categories of Networks
• LAN, WAN, MAN
• Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork
LAN, MAN, WAN etc are rarely isolated.
• When two or more networks are connected,
they become an internetwork, or internet.
Interconnection of Networks:
Internetwork
 Switching
• A switched network consists of a series of
interlinked nodes, called switches.
• Switches are devices capable of creating
temporary connections between two or more
devices linked to it.
• In a switched network, some of these nodes
are connected to the end systems (computers
or telephones, for example) and others are
used only for routing.
[Data Communications and Networking, 4/e,
Behrouz A Forouzan]
 Switching

• Each switch may be connected to multiple

links.
• Switching can be classified as circuit switching,
packet switching, and message switching.
Taxonomy of switched networks
 Circuit-switched networks
• Set of switches connected by physical links.
• Physical path is obtained for and dedicated to
a single connection between two end-points
in the network for the entire duration of the
connection.
• Useful when connection duration is less
(telephone conversation)
• Three Phases
Setup Phase – Establishing a dedicated channel
between the end points by requesting(give
address) the nearest node.
 CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
Data Transfer Phase – Process of communication
after establishing connection.
Teardown Phase - When one of the parties
needs to disconnect, a signal is sent to each
switch to release the resources.
• In circuit switching, the resources need to be
reserved during the setup phase the resources
remain dedicated for the entire duration of
data transfer until the teardown phase.
CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS
 Packet switching
• Data sent in discrete units called packets that
have variable length.
• The size of the packet is determined by the
network and the governing protocol.
• The packet contains data and various control
information(header) composed of in
formations like destination address.
• Datagram Networks
• No resource allocation for a packet ie no
reserved bandwidth on the links and there is
no scheduled processing time.
 Datagram Networks
• Resources are allocated on demand on a first-
come, first-served basis.
• When a switch receives a packet, no matter
what is the source or destination, the packet
must wait if there are other packets being
processed. This may create delay.
• Each packet is treated independently of all
others even if a packet is part of a multipacket
transmission.
• Packets in this approach are referred to as
datagrams
 Datagram Networks
• Datagram switching is normally done at the
network layer but circuit switching is in
physical layer
• The switches in a datagram network are
traditionally referred to as routers.
• The datagram networks are sometimes
referred to as connectionless networks.
• Higher efficiency and delay
Datagram Networks
 Routing Table
• Packets routed to their destinations using routing
table.
• The destination addresses and the corresponding
forwarding output ports are recorded in the
tables.
• The routing tables are dynamic and are updated
periodically.
• When a switch receives a packet, the destination
address in the header is examined; the routing
table is consulted to find the corresponding port
through which the packet should be forwarded.
Routing Table
 VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS
• A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a
circuit-switched network and a datagram
network. It has some characteristics of both.
• Transporting data over a packet switched
computer network in such a way that it
appears as though there is a dedicated
physical layer link between the source and
destination
• Connection oriented unlike datagram.
 VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS
• As in a circuit-switched network, there are
setup and teardown phases in addition to the
data transfer phase.
• Resources can be allocated during the setup
phase, as in a circuit-switched network, or on
demand, as in a datagram network.
• As in a datagram network, data are packetized
and each packet carries an address in the
header.
 VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS
• As in a circuit-switched network, all packets
follow the same path established during the
connection.
• It is normally implemented in the data link
layer.
 Message Switching

• With message switching there is no need to establish a

dedicated path between two stations.
• When a station sends a message, the destination address is
appended to the message.
• The message is then transmitted through the network, in its
entirety, from node to node.
• Each node receives the entire message, stores it in its
entirety on disk, and then transmits the message to the next
node.
• This type of network is called a store-and-forward network.
Message Switching
 Network models
• LAYERED TASKS
 THE OSI MODEL
• International Standards Organization (ISO) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide
agreement on international standards.
• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of
network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model introduced in 70s
• A model for understanding and designing a
network architecture that is flexible, robust, and
interoperable.
• It consists of seven layers each of which defines a
part of the process of moving information across
a network
Seven layers of the OSI model
 THE OSI MODEL
• The OSI model is composed of seven ordered
layers.
• Each layer defines a family of functions
distinct from those of the other layers, thus
both comprehensive and flexible.
• Complete interoperability between otherwise
incompatible systems.
• Within a single machine, each layer calls upon
the services of the layer just below it.
 THE OSI MODEL
• Between machines, layer x on one machine
communicates with layer x on another
machine.
• This communication is governed by an agreed-
upon series of rules and conventions called
protocols.
• The processes on each machine that
communicate at a given layer are called peer-
to-peer processes.
• Communication between machines is
therefore a peer-to-peer process using the
protocols appropriate to a given layer.
Interfaces b/w Layers

2.73
 THE OSI MODEL
• As the message travels from A to B, it may
pass through many intermediate nodes.
• These intermediate nodes usually involve only
the first three layers of the OSI model.
• At the physical layer, communication is direct
ie. device A sends a stream of bits to device B
through intermediate nodes.
• At the higher layers communication must
move down through the layers on device A,
over to device B, and then back up through
the layers
 THE OSI MODEL
• Each layer in the sending device adds its own
information to the message it receives from
the layer just above it and passes the whole
package to the layer just below it.
• At the receiving machine, the message is
unwrapped layer by layer, with each process
receiving and removing the data meant for it
and passes the rest to the upper layer.
 Organization of the Layers
• Layers I, 2, and 3- network support layers -
physical aspects of moving data from one device
to another such as electrical specifications,
physical connections, physical addressing, and
transport timing and reliability
• Layers 5, 6, and 7- user support layers - allow
interoperability among unrelated software
systems
• Layer 4- links the two subgroups –ensures that
what the lower layers have transmitted is in a
form that the upper layers can use
 Exchange using the OSI Model

Encapsulation - A packet (entire header and data) at higher

level is encapsulated in another packet at immediate lower
level and it continues. Its reverse is Decapsulation (in Rx 2.77
m/c)
LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
 Physical Layer
• Responsible for movements of individual BITS from
one (hop) node to the next.
• Mechanical and electrical specifications of the
interface and transmission medium.

2.79
 Physical Layer
• Defines the procedures and functions that
physical devices and interfaces have to perform
for transmission to Occur.
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and type of
transmission medium.
• Data rate
• Synchronization of bits
• Line configuration: point-to-point, multipoint
• Physical topology
• Transmission mode: simplex, half-duplex, full-
duplex
• Physical characteristics of interface and medium:
pin assignment, connector, cables
• Representation of bits: encoding
 Data Link Layer
• Responsible for movements of individual
FRAMES from one hop (node) to the next.

10110110101 01100010011 10110000001

 Data Link Layer
• Framing - Divides the stream of bits received
from the network layer into manageable data
units called frames.
• Physical addressing - Adds a header to the
frame to define the sender and/or receiver of
the frame if frames are to be distributed to
different systems.
• Flow control – Compensate difference in rate
of data received and processed.
 Data Link Layer
• Error control - adds reliability to the physical
layer by adding mechanisms to detect and
retransmit damaged or lost frames.
• Access control - When two or more devices
are connected to the same link, data link layer
protocols are necessary to determine which
device has control over the link at any given
time.
Hop-to-hop Delivery

2.84
 Network Layer
• Responsible for the source-to-destination
delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple
networks (links).
Whereas the data link layer oversees the
delivery of the packet between two systems
on the same network (links), the network
layer ensures that each packet gets from its
point of origin to its final destination.
 Network Layer

• Logical addressing - includes the logical

addresses of the sender and receiver to
distinguish actual source and destination if a
packet passes the network boundary.
• Routing
Source-to-Destination delivery
 Transport Layer
• Responsible for process (app)-to-process
delivery of the entire message.
• The network layer oversees source-to-
destination delivery of individual packets, it
does not recognize any relationship between
those packets. It treats each one
independently, as though each piece
belonged to a separate message, whether or
not it does.
• The transport layer, on the other hand,
ensures that the whole message arrives intact
and in order
 Transport Layer
• Service-point addressing – transport layer
header must therefore include a type of address
called a service-point address in order to ensure
that the message is passed from specific process
(running program) on one computer to a specific
process (running program) on the other.
• Segmentation and reassembly - A message is
divided into transmittable segments, with each
segment containing a sequence number. These
numbers enable the transport layer to
reassemble the message correctly upon arriving
at the destination and to identify and replace
packets that were lost in transmission.
• Flow control and error control
 Segmentation and Reassembly

• The transport layer is responsible for the

delivery of a message from one process to
another
2.90
Reliable process-to-process delivery of
a message

2.91
 Session Layer
• The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.
• It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the
interaction among communicating systems.
 Presentation Layer
• Translation - responsible for interoperability
between these different encoding methods as
different computers use different encoding
systems.
• Encryption and Compression
 Application Layer
• Enables the user, whether human or software,
to access the network.
• It provides user interfaces and support for
services such as electronic mail, remote file
access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed
information services.
PDU (Protocol Data Unit)
Summary of layers

2.96
 TCP/IP protocol suite
• Another N/W model developed prior to the
OSI model.
• Assignnment