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Data Handling and Management

Lesson 2
Unit 2
Learning Objectives

After reading this lesson you should be able to:


 Prepare and manage their field data for analysis.
Explain the meaning of Coding in research.
Identify the factors to consider when preparing your data
for analysis
Appreciate how to code both close-ended and open-ended
questions for both quantitative and qualitative data
State the difference between coding manual, coding
schedule and coding frame.
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OUTLINE

1. Data Processing
2. Preparing Numerical Data
3. Establishing The Nature Of The Data
4. Getting The Data In Shape For Analysis
5. Coding
6. Approaches of Coding-Rules for Coding
7. Role of Computers in Research
Preparing Numerical Data
There are four basic factors that needs to be considered when preparing
the data:

1) The Nature of the Data Collected


2) The Kind of Analysis to be used
3) The Research Objectives and type of Report to be made
4) Time Scale and Resource Available
Factors to Consider When Preparing the Data
• There are four basic factors that needs to be
Considered when preparing the data (raw information)
or in dealing with issues and procedures related to
data collected in research. These are;
(1) The Nature of the Data Collected: This involve a
careful consideration of the method involve (used) in
the collection of data (Questionnaire, Interview Guide).
(2) The Kind of Analysis to be Used: There are different
Statistical method that are to be used in the analysis.
Factors to Consider When Preparing the Data Cont’
(3) The Research Objectives and type of Report to be
made: The question is what are the expected outcome
For the study, what kind of report is one presenting-
Is it academic or a business report.
(4) Time Scale and Resource Available: This requires
taking into consideration the time span for carrying out
the study, and the resource-human, material and
financial resources.
Establishing the Nature of the Data
In establishing the nature of the data collected, it is important for the
researcher to consider the following factors

 Method of recording data


 The Sample Size
The Method of Recording Data
 In preparing the data for analysis, there is the need
to look at the method of data collection and their
implications in relation to the extent which the data
will be handled( ie, the structuring of data).

 • Information about the method or tools of data


collection gives clues as to the likelihood of whether
data to be analysed is structured or unstructured.
The Method of Recording Data Cont’
(1) The Questionnaire
(2) Interviews
(3) Secondary Documents/Data
The Sample Size
 In considering the information needed in research in
relation to data handling, the number of cases and
their nature becomes very important, hence given
higher priority.

 This is significant because the information enables


the researcher to know the kind of comparison that
will be possible and also whether any initial data
handling should be geared towards the transformation
of the set data into a form suitable for a case history-
Sample Size Cont’
 -the type of data and analysis or for statistical analysis.
• Dealing with Qualitative Data: data comprises of smaller sample size, between
5- maximum 20, a village, community etc which is largely dependent on the
nature and type of study(case-study, Naturalism, Phenomenological,
ethnographic, Historiography and Oral Traditions)
eg. An ethnographic study on the culture of a village calls for a case history that is
detailed information about one location over time. – field dairy, focus groups
discussions (5 -20 maximum no.) – use of thematic analysis etc
• Dealing with Quantitative Data: Data sets comprising information on larger
figures, samples size from companies eg 50 students, 100 and above opening up
the possibilities for treating such data quantitatively, and if possible testing for
statistical significance .
Sample Size Cont’
• It is important to note that in the case of smaller
number of cases-less than 40, it is advisable to adopt
a more descriptive analysis but the testing of
significance in such case might not be possible due to
the small number of case.

Note : it is statistically viable when have large number of respondents


to run inferential statistics – (hypothesis testing, both bi-variate and
multi -variate analysis)
GETTING THE DATA INTO SHAPE FOR ANALYSIS
• The preparation stage of an analysis involves devising
a good form in which to reproduce the data so that
they;
(a) Provide a fair summary of what is being studied
(b) Can be analysed readily to answer the research
questions.
• It deals specifically with the data handling process-
which involves the presentation and transformation
of data.
GETTING THE DATA INTO SHAPE FOR ANALYSIS
It deals specifically with the data handling process which
involves the presentation and transformation of data. “Data
handling means shaping the raw data so that they are
transformed into variables to enable the researcher to inspect
or analyze them more readily”(Swift, 1996: 163)
Data Matrix
A data matrix comprises a grid of rows and columns.
Traditionally, the rows represent cases, the columns represent
the variables and the entries are the data. A Data Matrix code is
a two-dimensional matrix barcode consisting of black and white
"cells" or modules arranged in either a square or rectangular
pattern. The information to be encoded can be text or raw data
Example of a research Data Matrix

1 M 1 1 9
CODING- WHAT IS CODING?
• One of the key elements in the preparation of data deals
with the transformation of information collected in such a
way that the variables can be easily recognised. This process
involves the use of codes.
Coding in social research is the process by which responses are
classified into meaningful categories.
In quantitative research, a code is a tag that is placed on data about
people or other units of analysis.
 In qualitative research, coding is the process where-by data are
broken down in components parts, which are given names
Elements in coding Scheme
• Coding Schedule: Is a form onto which all the data relating to an item
being coded will be entered. In the coding schedule, the column
heading indicate the dimension to be coded.
• Coding Frame: It contains a list of the code used in relation to the
analysis of data. In relation to answer to a structured interview schedule
or questionnaires-the coding frame will determine the categories used
in relation to each question.
Coding Frame
• A listing of the code used in relation to the analysis
of data. In relation to answer to a structured interview
schedule or questionnaires-the coding frame will
determine the categories used in relation to each
question.
• Coding frame always include these pieces of
information for each variable;
1.A reference back to the source data eg. (Q 12 (b) )
Coding Frame Cont’
(2) A list which comprises the codes and their
associated symbols
(3) An identification of the column location of the
variable within the matrix.
Coding Manual
This is the statement of instruction to coders that outlines all the possible
categories for each dimension being coded.
It provides a list of all the dimensions’ the different categories subsumed
under each dimension, the number (ie. codes) that correspond to each
category and guidance on what each dimensions concerned with and any
factors that should be taken into account in deciding how to allocate any
particular code to each dimension.
Each variable used has a number of categories.
Eg. Gender – man/boy and woman / girl (2 catogories)
 Ethnicity – Akan , Ga, Ewe, Dagomba, Ga-adanbge, etc
Coding Manual Cont’
• An example of coding manual. A study on Crime in Kumasi Metro
Nature of offence
1. Violence against person
2. Sexual offence
3. Robbery
4. Burglary in a dwelling
5. Burglary other than a dwelling
Gender of Perpetrator
1. Male
2. Female
Approaches of Coding

These approaches are grouped into three ways.


I. Representative approach,
II. the Anchored in /Reality approach, and
III. Hypothesis-Guide approach.
i. Representative Approach

This is the process where the researcher views the data (eg. the word
that have been said) as expressing their surface content, what is “out
there”. The researcher’s main concern here is to produce a set of codes
that reduces the data to their essentials with the code reflecting the
surface meaning of the raw data as faithfully as possible, independent
of any views that he/she may have about underlying variables and
meanings.
ii. Anchored in/Reality Approach
The researcher may view the data as having additional and
important meaning that came from the fact that they are
“anchored in” and dependent on the data- gathering context.

Hence, what is relevant will have been communicated to


informants through information about the enquiry and indirectly
through the questions or interview agenda.
iii. Hypothesis-Guide Approach
This approach views the data as having a variety of meanings.
For example, in this approach a researcher using a data set which contains
information on illness and minor upset experience during the years might
use the raw data and other apparently quite disparate materials to create
and/or investigate variable that are detoured in terms of his/her
theoretical perspective and purpose of research.
Pre-coding
It is a process that involves the allocation of column numbers as well as answer
code for each variable within.
A pre-code question is another name for a closed question. The term is often
preferred because such a question removes the need for application of a coding
frame to the question after it has been answered.
The term is particularly appropriate when the codes appear on the
questionnaire or interview schedule.
Generally, in quantitative study,- such as survey the data collecting tools(
questionnaire) mostly have pre determine answers (close-end questions).
Each question indicates a variable with its proposed categories as
answers.
Example -Pre – coding
Do you have piped water 24 hours/day?

a. □ YES b. □ NO

If no, do you store water in an open container?

a. □ YES b. □ NO
Katrina Questionnaire Critique
Tell me all the places you saw or heard information about the
hurricane before Katrina.
a.  Environmental cues (look outside)
b.  Family or friends
c.  The Weather Channel
d.  Internet
e.  Local radio stations
f.  Local television stations
g.  NOAA Weather Radio
h.  Cell Phone
i.  Other (please describe) __________________________________________
Advantages of Pre-coding
• It cuts the time and costs of handling data ie it is faster and easy to
process.
• It reduces errors- it facilitates easy means to identify errors introduced
at the coding stage.
Coding Open-ended Questions
• Coding open-ended questions means transforming
the raw data into a form which can be easily analysed.
This process required a lot of effort and thought in the
initial stage of data handling.
• In pre-coded questionnaire , open-ended questions
will have to be coded and this has to be derived from
the written-in-answers-by preparing a coding list
before keying the data into a data matrix.
Coding Open-ended Questions Cont’
• Researchers are always faced with two decisions in
dealing with open-ended information.
(1) To code the open-ended information
(2) To analyse such information by hand-list the data
for inspection, then quoting comments that are typical
or of specific interest in the report.
• However, to code the open-ended question in the project requires the
frequencies of the answers or relate the question to the open-ended
question to other variables.
Coding in Qualitative study
In qualitative study, the methodology for data collection may vary
(interviews and observation.
Hence answers to questions asked during the interview process are not
predetermined by the researcher. This is mostly driven by on the
nature and type of interviews conducted, the are mostly open –
ended, topic or theme discussions, etc.
 Results/ responses can however be coded by researcher. This is largely
influenced by the nature of the study, the problem, objective, design
and the type of analysis to conduct- discourse, ground-theory,
narrative etc and the approaches adopted whether interpretative
approaches, social anthropological approaches, and collaborative social
research .

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Coding in Qualitative study
Coding is one of the most central processes in grounded
theory. It entails reviewing transcripts and /or field notes and
giving labels ( names) to component parts that seem to be of
potential theoretical significance ad / or that appear to be
particularly salient within the social worlds of those being
studied.
 Coding in qualitative data analysis tends to be in a constant
state of potential revision and fluidity. The data are treated as
potential indicators of concepts and the indicators are
constantly compared 33
Coding in qualitative data analysis
Strauss and Corbin, drawing on their grounded theory approach,
distinguish between three types of coding practice:
• Open coding- ‘the process of breaking down, examining,
comparing, conceptualizing and categorizing data’(199 :61); this
process of coding yields concepts, which are later to be grouped
and turned into categories.
• Axial Coding-‘ a set of procedures whereby data are put back
together in new ways after open coding, by making connections
between categories’( 199 :96). This is done by linking codes to
contexts, to consequences, to patterns of interaction, and to
causes.
• Theoretical saturation- is a process that relates to two phases in grounded
theory: the coding of data (implying that you reach a point where there is
no further point in reviewing your data to see how well they fit with your
concepts or categories) and the data collection ( implying that, once a
concept or category has been developed, you may wish to continue
collecting data to determine its nature and operation but then reach a
point where new data are no longer illuminating the concepts).
• . Constant comparison- an aspect of grounded theory that was prominent
in Glaser and Strauss (1967) and that is often referred to as a significant
phase by practitioners, but that seems to be an implicit, rather than an
explicit, element in more recent writings. It refers to a process of
maintaining a close connection between data and conceptualization, so
that the correspondence between concepts and categories with their
indicators is not lost
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Creating Codes
1. Open coding
2. Memoing
3. Concept Mapping

Open coding : Open coding is the part of analysis that pertains


specifically to the naming and categorizing of phenomena
through close examination of data. It is the initial classification
and labeling of concepts in qualitative data analysis. In open
coding, the codes are suggested by the researchers’
Creating Codes
 Memoing : In the Grounded Theory Method, the coding process involves
more than simply categorizing chunks of text. As you code data, you should
also be using the technique of memoing- writing memos or notes to
yourself and others involved in the project.
Memoing: writing memos that become part of the data for analysis in
qualitative research such as grounded theory. Memos can describe and
define concepts, deal with methodological issues, or offer initial theoretical
formulations.

 Concept Mapping
• The graphical display of concepts and their interrelations useful in the
formulation of theory.
Concept Mapping – Quantitative Data Analysis
Example:
Examination of Gender and Advertising

Physical Active/
Location Passive Role

Social
Gender
Status

Servant /
Power authority Master

Social
Worth
Outcomes of grounded theory

• The following are the products of different phases of grounded theory.


(Bryman, 2001: 392).

• Concept(s) – refers to labels given to discrete phenomena; concepts are
referred to as the ‘building blocks of theory’ (Strauss and Corbin
1998:101). Concepts are produced through open coding.
• Category, categories –a concept that has been elaborated so that it is
regarded as representing real-world phenomena.
• Properties-attributes or aspects of a category
• Hypotheses-initial hunches about relationships between concepts.




Focus Group Methods, cont.
Coding/Analyzing

• Tapes are usually transcribed verbatim


• Text is sorted into emergent themes by at least 2 researchers
to ensure validity using pile-sort method or computerized
version such as CDC’s EasyText (free!)
• Themes are compared with field notes taken by second
researcher
Focus Group Methods, cont.
Thematic coding factors:
1. Frequency – number of times something is mentioned
2. Specificity – details
3. Emotion – enthusiasm, passion, etc. in responses
4. Extensiveness – how many different people said something
• Pile Sort:
• Researchers literally sort responses into themes, and pile
them up on a table to validate emergent themes based on 4
thematic coding factors.
• Software options
– Can aid in organizing text
• Especially critical when there are multiple interviewers
• Still need interviewers to help interpret the pauses, body
language, dominance of particular speakers
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Role of Computers in Social Research

• Computers are simple tools that help us store, process, access and
analyses data sets more quickly and easily.
• It helps the researcher calculate the statistics and provides print outs of
the results, once the researcher understand the various statistical
methods.
• Let students list some important use of the computer
Unit Summary

• In this unit we have learnt that:
• In establishing the nature of the data collected, it is important for the researcher to consider
the following factors
• Method of recording data; In preparing the data for analysis, there is the need to look at the
method of data collection and their implications in relation to the extent which the data will
be handled( ie, the structuring of data). Information about the method or tools of data
collection gives clues as to the likelihood of whether data to be analysed is structured or
unstructured.
• The Sample Size; In considering the information needed in research in relation to data
handling, the number of cases and their nature becomes very important, hence given higher
priority. This is significant because the information enables the researcher to know the kind
of comparison that will be possible and also whether any initial data handling should be
geared towards the transformation of the set data into a form suitable for a case history- -the
type of analysis or for statistical analysis

44
Four basic factors to consider in the preparation
and processing of Information /data
There are four basic factors that needs to be considered when preparing the data
(raw information) or in dealing with issues and procedures related to data
collected in research. These are;
1. The Nature of the Data Collected: This involve a careful consideration of the
method involve (used) in the collection of data (Questionnaire, Interview Guide).
2. The Kind of Analysis to be used: There are different statistical method that are to
be used in the analysis.
3. The Research Objectives and type of Report to be made: The question is what
are the expected outcome for the study, what kind of report is one presenting-Is
it academic or a business report.
4. Time Scale and Resource Available: This requires taking into consideration the
time span for carrying out the study, and the resource-human, material and
financial resources.

45
Summary -Key terms/ New Words in Unit-
• Data Matrix: A data matrix comprises a grid of rows and columns.
Traditionally, the rows represent cases, the columns represent the
variables and the entries are the data.
• Coding in social research is the process by which responses are
classified into meaningful categories. In quantitative research, a code is
a tag that is placed on data about people or other units of analysis.
In qualitative research, coding is the process where-by data are broken
down in components parts, which are given names. There are two main
elements in coding scheme; Designing a coding schedule and Designing
a coding manual
• Coding Schedule: Is a form onto which all the data relating to an item
being coded will be entered. In the coding schedule, the column
heading indicate the dimension to be coded.

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Summary contn;
• Coding Frame: It contains a list of the code used in relation to the analysis
of data. In relation to answer to a structured interview schedule or
questionnaires-the coding frame will determine the categories used in
relation to each question.
• Coding frame always include these pieces of information for each variable.
• Coding Manual
• This is the statement of instruction to coders that outlines all the possible
categories for each dimension being coded. It provides a list of all the
dimensions’ the different categories subsumed under each dimension, the
number (ie codes) that correspond to each category and guidance on what
each dimensions concerned with and any factors that should be taken into
account in deciding how to allocate any particular code to each dimension

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