Embedded Systems

Introduction to Embedded
Systems
• What is an embedded system
• Embedded System v/s General Computing System
• Classification of Embedded Systems
• Major Application Areas of Embedded Systems
• Purpose of Embedded Systems
• Smart Running Shoes.
 What is a system?
• Way of working , organizing or doing one or
more tasks according to a fixed plan ,program
or set of rules.

• An arrangement in which all its units assemble

& work together according to plan or
program.
 What is a system?
• Example 1 : Time display system (watch)
 Objective : show & update real time every second.
 Hardware :
o Needles
o Battery
o chassis
o strap
o dial
 What is a system?
• Example 1 : Time display system (watch)
Follows a set of rules.
• All needles move clockwise only.
• A seconds needle rotates every second such
that it returns to the same position after one
minute.
• A minutes needle rotates every minute such
that it returns to the same position after one
hour.
 What is a system?
• Example 1 : Time display system (watch)
• A hour needle rotates every hour such that it
returns to the same position after twelve
hours.

• All three needles return to the same

inclinations after twelve hours each day.
 What is a system?
• Example 2 : Automated clothes washing system ( washing
machine)
• Objective : wash clothes automatically according to a
program preset by the user.

 Hardware :
o Status display panel
o switches & dials
o Motor to rotate & spin
o power supply & control unit
o water sensors
o Valves for draining water in and out.
 What is a system?
• Example 2 : Automated clothes washing
system ( washing machine)
• Follows a set of rules.
• Wash by spinning the motor for a
preprogrammed period.
• Rinse in fresh water after draining out dirty
water, & rinse the second time if the system is
not programmed in water saving mode.
 What is a system?
• Example 2 : Automated clothes washing
system ( washing machine)
• At each step display the process stage of the
system.
• In case of an interruption, execute only the
remaining part of the process, starting from
the position when the process was
interrupted.
 What is a system?
• Example 3: Air Conditioner
• An Air Conditioner from an embedded systems point
of view has:
a. Hardware: Remote, Display & buzzer, Infrared
Sensors, electronic circuitry.
b. Software: It has a chip on the circuit that holds the
software which drives controls & monitors the
various operations possible. The software monitors
the external temperature through the sensors and
then releases the coolant or suppresses it.
c. Mechanical Components: the internals of an air
conditioner the motor, the chassis, the outlet, etc.
Introduction to embedded systems
• Computing systems are everywhere
• Most of us think of “desktop” computers
– PC’s
– Laptops
– Mainframes
– Servers
• But there’s another type of computing system
– Far more common...
 A “short list” of embedded
systems
• Anti-lock brakes
• Auto-focus cameras
• Automatic toll systems
• Automatic transmission
• Avionic systems
• Battery chargers
• Camcorders
• Cell phones
• Cell-phone base
stations
• Cordless phones
• Cruise control
• Digital cameras
• Disk drives
• Electronic card readers
• Electronic instruments
•Electronic toys/games • Scanners
•Factory control • Smart ovens/dishwashers
•Fax machines • Speech recognizers
•Fingerprint identifiers
•Home security • Stereo systems
systems • Teleconferencing systems
•Life-support systems • Televisions
•Medical testing • Temperature controllers
systems • Theft tracking systems
• Modems
•Network cards • TV set-top boxes
• VCR’s, DVD players
•Network
switches/routers • Video game consoles
•Pagers • Video phones
•Photocopiers • Washers and dryers
•Portable video games
•Printers
•Satellite phones
 Embedded System : Definition
1. “An embedded system is a system that has software embedded into
computer-hardware, which makes a system dedicated for an application (s)
or specific part of an application or product or part of a larger system.”

2. “ An embedded system is one that has a dedicated purpose software

embedded in a computer hardware.”

3. “ It is a dedicated computer based system for an application(s) or

product. It may be an independent system or a part of large system. Its
software usually embeds into a ROM (Read Only Memory) or flash.”

4. “ It is any device that includes a programmable computer but is not itself

intended to be a general purpose computer.”

5. “ Embedded Systems are the electronic systems that contain a

microprocessor or a microcontroller, but we do not think of them as
computers– the computer is hidden or embedded in the system.” – Todd
D. Morton,
 Introduction to embedded
systems
• Embedded computing systems
– Computing systems embedded within electronic
devices
– Hard to define. Nearly any computing system
other than a desktop computer
– Billions of units produced yearly, versus millions of
desktop units
– Perhaps 50 per household and per automobile
 Embedded systems
• “ Are electronic device that incorporate
microprocessors within their
implementations”

• “ Specific or dedicated computing in many

electronic appliances, makes embedded
system”
 Embedded systems
• A combination of computer hardware &
software.

• may include additional mechanical or other

parts.

• designed to perform a specific function.

• Example : microwave oven.

 Embedded systems
• Generally , an embedded system is a
component within some larger system.
• Example : Automobile industry
• One embedded system controls the anti-lock
brakes, another monitors and controls the
vehicle's emissions, and a third displays
information on the dashboard.
• May be connected by some sort of a
communications network .
 History Of Embedded System
• The first recognised embedded system is the Apollo Guidance
Computer(AGC) developed by MIT lab.
• AGC was designed on 4K words of ROM & 256 words of RAM.
• The clock frequency of first microchip used in AGC was 1.024 MHz.
• The computing unit of AGC consists of 11 instructions and 16 bit word logic.
• It used 5000 ICs.
• The UI of AGC is known DSKY(display/keyboard) which resembles a calculator
type keypad with array of numerals.
• The first mass - produced embedded system was guidance computer for the
Minuteman - I missile in 1961.
• In the year 1971 Intel introduced the world's first microprocessor chip called
the 4004, was designed for use in business calculators. It was produced by
the Japanese company Bussicom.
 Embedded System v/s General
Computing System
Criteria General Purpose Embedded Systems
Contents It is combination of generic It is combination of special
hardware and a general purpose Purpose hardware and
OS for executing a variety of embedded OS for executing
applications. specific set of applications
Operating System It contains general purpose It may or may not contain
operating system operating system.

Alterations Applications are alterable Applications are non -alterable by

by the user. the user.
Key factor Performance is key factor Application specific requirements
are key factors
Power More Less
Consumption
Response Time Not Critical Critical for some Applications
 Personal computers
• comprised of computer hardware & software.

• mechanical components (disk drives)

• not designed to perform a specific function.

• able to do many different things.

• general-purpose computer
 Personal computers
• A general-purpose computer is itself made up of
numerous embedded systems.
• Example :
• A computer consists of a keyboard, mouse, video
card, modem, hard drive, floppy drive, and sound
card-each of which is an embedded system.
• Each of these devices contains a processor & software
and is designed to perform a specific function.
• A modem is designed to send & receive digital data
over an analog telephone line.
Embedded system: Block Diagram
 Classification Of Embedded
System
The classification of embedded system is based
on following criteria's:
• On generation
• On complexity & performance
• On deterministic behaviour
• On triggering
 Classification: On generation
1.First generation(1G):
• Built around 8bit microprocessor & microcontroller.
• Simple in hardware circuit & firmware developed.
• Examples: Digital telephone keypads.

2. Second generation(2G):
• Built around 16 – bit μp & 8 – bit μc.
• They are more complex & powerful than 1G μp & μc.
• Examples: SCADA systems
 Classification: On generation
3. Third generation(3G):
• Built around 32 – bit μp & 16 – bit μc.
• Concepts like Digital Signal Processors(DSPs),
• Application Specific Integrated Circuits(ASICs) evolved.
• Examples: Robotics, Media, etc.

4. Fourth generation (4G) :

• Built around 64 – bit μp & 32 – bit μc.
• The concept of System on Chips (SoC), Multicore Processors
evolved.
• Highly complex & very powerful.
• Examples: Smart Phones.
 Classification - On Their Performance
And Functional Requirements
1. Stand Alone Embedded Systems:
• Do not require a host system like a computer, it works by itself.
• It takes the input from the input ports, processes, calculates gives the
resulting data through the connected device.
• Examples: mp3 players, digital cameras, video game consoles, microwave
ovens and temperature measurement systems.
2. Real Time Embedded Systems:
• System which gives a required o/p in a particular time.
• Follows the time deadlines for completion of a task.
• Classified into two types such as soft and hard real time systems.
• Examples: Vehicle systems for automobiles, subways, aircraft, railways,
and ships, process control for power plants, medical systems for radiation
therapy, telephone, radio, and satellite communications.
 Classification - On Their Performance
And Functional Requirements
3. Networked Embedded Systems:
• Related to a network to access the resources like LAN, WAN or the internet.
• The connection can be any wired or wireless.
• Example: The LAN networked embedded system in a home security system
wherein all sensors are connected.

4. Mobile Embedded Systems:

• Limitation is the other resources and limitation of memory.
• Examples: Portable embedded devices like cell phones, mobiles,
digital cameras, mp3 players and personal digital assistants, etc.
Classification: On Performance Of
The Microcontroller
• Small Scale embedded systems :
 Systems designed with a single 8 bit or 16 bit
microcontroller.
 Little hardware & software complexities.
 Performance not time - critical.
 Battery operated.
 Board level design.
Classification: On Performance Of
The Microcontroller
• Small Scale embedded systems :
• Programming tools : editor, assembler, cross
assembler specific to microcontroller.
 C programming language.
 Software has to fit within the memory
available.
 Limit power dissipation when the system is
running continuously.
 Example: Battery operated electronic toy
Classification: On Performance Of
The Microcontroller
• Medium scale embedded systems:
 Systems designed with a single or few 16 or
32 bit microcontrollers or DSP.
 Hardware & software complexities.
 Software design tools : C, C++, JAVA, Visual
C++, RTOS, Source code engineering tools ,
Simulators, debuggers, IDE’s (Integrated
Development Environment. Tools provided by
an IDE include a text editor, a project editor, a
tool bar, and an output viewer..)
Classification: On Performance Of
The Microcontroller
• Medium scale embedded systems:
 may employ readily available Application
Specific System processors (ASSP) for various
functions.
 Usually contain operating system.
 Examples: Industrial machines.
 Classification: On Performance Of
The Microcontroller
• Sophisticated embedded systems:
• Enormous hardware & software complexities.
• Built around 32 or 64 bit RISC μp/μc or PLDs
(programmable logic devices – PROM, etc.)
• Used in applications that need hardware &
software co - design & integration in final system.
• Response is time - critical.
• Examples: Mission critical applications
demanding high performance.
 Major Application Areas of
Embedded Systems
1. Embedded Systems in Automobiles and in telecommunications:
• Motor and cruise control system
• Body or Engine safety
• Entertainment and multimedia in car
• E-Com and Mobile access
• Robotics in assembly line
• Wireless Communication
• Mobile computing and networking
2. Embedded Systems in Smart Cards, Missiles and Satellites:
• Security systems
• Telephone and banking
• Defense and aerospace
• Communication
 Major Application Areas of
Embedded Systems
3. Embedded Systems in Peripherals & Computer Networking:
• Displays and Monitors
• Networking Systems
• Image Processing
• Network cards and printers

4. Embedded Systems in Consumer Electronics:

• Digital Cameras
• Set top Boxes
• High Definition TVs
• DVDs
 Purpose Of Embedded System
1. Data Collection/Storage/Representation:
• Embedded system designed for the purpose of data collection performs
acquisition of data from the external world.
• Data collection is usually done for storage, analysis, manipulation and
transmission.
• Data can be analog or digital.
• Embedded systems with analog data capturing techniques collect data
directly in the form of analog signal whereas embedded systems with
digital data collection mechanism converts the analog signal to the digital
signal using analog to digital converters.
• If the data is digital it can be directly captured by digital embedded system.
• A digital camera is a typical example of an Embedded System with data
collection/storage/representation of data.
• Images are captured and the captured image may be stored within the
memory of the camera. The captured image can also be presented to the
user through a graphic LCD unit.
 Purpose Of Embedded System
2. Data Communication:
• Embedded data communication systems are deployed in applications
from complex satellite communication to simple home networking
systems.
• The transmission of data is achieved either by a wire – line medium or by
a wire – less medium.
• Data can either be transmitted by analog means or by digital means.
• Wireless modules - Bluetooth, Wi - Fi.
• Wire - line modules - USB, TCP/IP.
• Network hubs, routers, switches are examples of dedicated data
transmission embedded systems.
 Purpose Of Embedded System
3. Data Signal Processing:
• Embedded systems with signal processing functionalities are employed in
applications demanding signal processing like speech coding, audio video
codec, transmission applications, etc.
• A digital hearing aid is a typical example of an embedded system employing
data processing.
• Digital hearing aid improves the hearing capacity of hearing impaired person

4. Monitoring:
• All embedded products coming under the medical domain are with
monitoring functions.
• Electro cardiogram machine is intended to do the monitoring of the heartbeat
of a patient but it cannot impose control over the heartbeat.
• Other examples with monitoring function are digital CRO, digital multi-meters,
and logic analyzers.
 Purpose Of Embedded System
5. Control:
• A system with control functionality contains both sensors and actuators.
• Sensors are connected to the input port for capturing the changes in
environmental variable and the actuators connected to the output port
are controlled according to the changes in the input variable.
• Air conditioner system used to control the room temperature to a
specified limit is a typical example for CONTROL purpose.

6. Application specific user interface:

• Buttons, switches, keypad, lights, bells, display units etc are application
specific user interfaces.
• Mobile phone is an example of application specific user interface.
• In mobile phone the user interface is provided through the keypad,
system speaker, vibration alert, etc.
Smart Running Shoes: ADIDAS

Embedded
Hall Sensor
Smart Running Shoes: ADIDAS
 Smart Running Shoes: ADIDAS
• Adidas created the world's first "smart shoe" by mating it with a computer chip
that adapts its cushioning level to a runner's size and stride.
• The Adidas 1 was the product of a three-year secret project the German
company developed at its U.S. headquarters in Portland, Ore.
• A shoe the company claimed will revolutionize distance running and training.
• "This is the first intelligent shoe ever," said Erich Stamminger, global marketing
director for Adidas. "It senses, understands and adapts.“
• The computerized shoe endured the wear-and-tear of running in almost any
condition -- from hard pavement to dirt trails, and dry streets to wet beaches.
• The entire assembly weighs no more than 40 grams -- just 10 percent of the
400-gram total weight of the shoe, to keep it light enough for distance runners.
• But the $250 price tag was likely to make it a luxury it.em
 Smart Running Shoes: ADIDAS
Set- up:
• Hall effect sensor at the top of “cushioning element”.

(A Hall effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage in response to
a magnetic field. Hall effect sensors are used for proximity switching, positioning, speed
detection, and current sensing applications)

• Magnet at the bottom of the element

• Microprocessor positioned under the arch of the shoe

• Micro motor housed in the mid – foot

• Micro motor connected to a lead screw

• Screw connected to a cable secured to the walls of plastic cushioning element

• 3 V battery powers the motor and it lasts for 100 hours of running
 Smart Running Shoes: ADIDAS
Algorithm:
• As the cushioning compresses on each impact, the sensor measures the distance from
top to bottom of the mid – sole. (accuracy ≈ 0.1 mm)
• 1000 readings/ second taken and relayed to the embedded µP
• An embedded algorithm is run and compression values are compared to the preset
ranges of proper cushioning levels.
• µP commands the micro motor to turn the lead screw to either lengthen/ shorten the
cable.
• Shortened cable: less cushioning; longer cable: more cushioning
• Change in cushion element: accounts for – change of running surface, change in pace of
the runner
• Changes are made over 4 running steps, not to give sudden changes
• Inspite of automatic cushion adjustments changes needed – adjust using +/ - buttons
• LED indicates when the electronics of the shoe is turned on
• LEDs are off when shoe is in use
• If electronic part not switched on: shoe remains in normal regular mode
• If not used for more than 10 minutes shoe turns off
 A Typical
Embedded system:
Core of embedded
system
 Introduction
• Embedded systems are domain and application
specific and are built around a central core.
• The core of the embedded system falls into any of
the following categories:
General purpose and domain specific processor.
 Microprocessors
 Microcontrollers
 Digital signal processors
Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASIC)
Programmable logic devices(PLD’s)
Commercial off – the – shelf components(COTs)
General purpose and domain specific processors
1.Microprocessors (µP)
• A microprocessor is a silicon chip representing a central
processing unit.
• It requires the combination of other hardware like memory,
timer unit, interrupt controller, etc. for proper functioning.
• Developers of microprocessors:
• Intel – Intel 4004 – November 1971(4 - bit).
• Intel – Intel 4040
• Intel – Intel 8008 – April 1972.
• Intel - Intel 8080 – April 1974(8 - bit).
• Motorola – Motorola 6800.
• Intel – Intel 8085 –1976.
• Zilog - Z80 – July 1976
 Microprocessors (µP)
• Intel
• Motorola
• AMD
• FreeScale
• IBM
• Hitachi
• NES
• Cyrix
 2. Microcontrollers (µC)
• Highly integrated chip that contains a CPU, scratch pad RAM,
special and general purpose register arrays,on chip ROM/FLASH
memory for program storage , timer and interrupt control units
and dedicated I/O ports.
• Texas Instrument’s TMS 1000 Is considered as the world’s first
microcontroller.
• Some embedded system application require only 8 bit controllers
whereas some requiring superior performance and computational
needs demand 16/32 bit controllers.
• The instruction set of a microcontroller can be RISC or CISC.
• Microcontrollers are designed for either general purpose
application requirement or domain specific application
requirement
 Microcontrollers (µC)
• Intel
• PIC
• Atmel
• Zilog
• Freescale
• Toshiba
• Philips
• Texas Instruments
• Daewoo
• TDK
• Triscend
µP & µC
Microprocessor
Contains ALU, General purpose registers, stack
pointer, program counter, clock timing circuit,
interrupt circuit
It has many instructions to move data between
memory and CPU
Few bit handling instruction
Less number of pins are multifunctional
Single memory map for data and code (program)
Access time for memory and IO are more
It requires more additional hardware
More flexible in the design point of view
Large number of instructions with flexible
addressing modes
Microcontroller
Block diagram of microcontroller
Contains the circuitry of microprocessor, and in
addition it has built in ROM, RAM, I/O Devices,
Timers/Counters etc.
It has few instructions to move data between
memory and CPU
It has many bit handling instructions
More number of pins are multifunctional
Separate memory map for data and code (program)
Less access time for built in memory and IO
It requires less additional hardware
Less flexible since the additional circuits reside
inside the microcontroller
Limited number of instructions with few addressing
modes
 RISC AND CISC CPU ARCHITECTURES
Microcontrollers with small instruction set are called reduced instruction set computer
(RISC) machines . Example: Microchip PIC 18F87X
Microcontrollers with complex instruction set are called complex instruction set
computer (CISC). Example: Intel 8051

RISC
Instruction takes one or two cycles
Instructions executed by hardware
Fixed format instruction
Few addressing modes
Few instructions
Have multiple register banks
Highly pipelined
Complexity is in the compiler
•
CISC
Instruction takes multiple cycles
Instructions executed by the micro program
Variable format instructions
Many addressing modes
Complex instruction set
Single register bank
Less pipelined
Complexity in the microprogram
 Harvard architecture
The name is originated from “Harvard
Mark I” a relay based old computer.
It required two memories for their
instruction and data
Design of Harvard architecture is
complicated.
Harvard architecture is required
separate bus for instruction and data.
Comparatively high cost.
Uses CISC architecture
Eg. 8085, 8086, MC6800
Von Neumann architecture
It is named after the mathematician and early
computer scientist John Von Neumann.
It required only one memory for their
instruction and data
Design of the von Neumann architecture is
simple.
Von Neumann architecture is required only one
bus for instruction and data.
It is cheaper.
Uses RISC architecture
Eg. General purpose microcontrollers, special
DSP chips etc.
 Digital signal processors (DSP)
• powerful , special purpose 8/16/32 bit
processors designed to meet computational
demands & power constraints of today’s
embedded audio , video & communication
applications.

• DSP are two or three times faster than

general purpose µP in signal processing
applications.
 Digital signal processors (DSP)
• Program memory: for storing the program required by DSP to
process the data.
• Data memory: working memory for storing temporary
variables and data/signal to be processed.
• Computational engine:
 performs the signal processing in accordance with the stored
program memory
 incorporates many specialized arithmetic units and each of
them operates simultaneously to increase the execution
speed.
 includes multiple hardware shifters for shifting operands and
saves execution time.
 Digital signal processors (DSP)
• I/O units:
acts as an interface between the outside world
and DSP.
responsible for capturing signals to be processed
and delivering the processed signals.
• Applications
 Audio video signal processing
 Telecommunications
 Multimedia
 Big endian & Little endian
processors
• Endianness specifies the order in which data
is stored in memory by processor operations
in a multi byte system.

• Example : Assume a word length is 2 bytes.

Data can be stored in memory in two ways.
 Big endian & Little endian
processors
• Higher order of the data byte at higher
memory & lower order of the data byte at
location just below the higher memory.

• Lower order of the data byte at higher

memory & higher order of the data byte at
location just below the higher memory.
 Little Endian
• Lower order byte of data is stored in memory
at the lowest address & the higher order byte
at the highest address.

• Little end comes first.

• Example : A four byte long integer Byte 3 ,

Byte 2 , Byte 1 , Byte 0 is stored as follows.
 Little Endian

Base address + 0 0x20000 (base

Byte 0
address)

Base address + 1 Byte 1 0x20001

Base address + 2 Byte 2 0x20002

Base address + 3 Byte 3 0x20003

 Big Endian
• Higher order byte of data is stored in memory
at the lowest address & the lower order byte
at the highest address.

• Big end comes first.

• Example : A four byte long integer Byte 3 ,

Byte 2 , Byte 1 , Byte 0 is stored as follows.
 Big Endian

Base address + 0 0x20000 (base

Byte 3
address)

Base address + 1 Byte 2 0x20001

Base address + 2 Byte 1 0x20002

Base address + 3 Byte 0 0x20003

 Application Specific IC (ASIC)
• A microchip designed to perform a specific or
unique application.

• used as a replacement to conventional

general purpose logic chips.

• reduces system development cost by

integrating several functions into a single chip.
 Application Specific IC (ASIC)
• Consumes very small area in total system and
helps in design of smaller systems with high
capabilities/functionalities.

• profitable only for large volume commercial

productions.

• Fabrication of ASIC requires reqires non

refundable initial investment known as NRE.
Programmable Logic devices (PLD)
• Logic device provide specific functions.
 device to device interfacing.
 data communication
 Signal processing
 data display
 Timing & control operations.
• Two categories : fixed & programmable.
Programmable Logic devices (PLD)
• Fixed
 circuits in a fixed logic device are permanent.
 one function or set of functions.
• Programmable Logic devices
 wide range of features, speed , voltage
characteristics , logic capacity.
 reconfigured to perform any number of
functions at any time.
Programmable Logic devices (PLD)
• designers can use inexpensive software tools
to quickly develop, simulate & test their
designs.
• can be used & tested in a live design.
• No NRE costs.
• During the design phase, circuitry can change
as often as they want until the design
operates to their satisfaction.
Programmable Logic devices (PLD)
• PLD’s are based on rewritable memory technology
(to change the design the device is reprogrammed).
• CPLD & FPGA are two major types of PLD’s
• Complex programmable logic device ,is also other
type of digital logic chip but has less complex
architecture and contains only few blocks of logic
that reaches upto few thousand.
• Field – Programmable Gate Array, is a type of
programmable logic chip has more complex
architecture and contains upto 100,000 of tiny logic
blocks.
Programmable Logic devices (PLD)
• Advantages
• 1) PLDs offer customer much more flexibility
during the design cycle.
• 2) PLDs do not require long lead times for
prototypes or production parts because PLDs
are already on a distributors shelf and ready
for shipment.
• 3) PLDs can be reprogrammed even after a
piece of equipment is shipped to a customer
 COTS
• COTS : Commercial Off-the Shelf
• product is used as is.

• Designed to provide easy integration with

existing system components.

• COTS component may be developed around

general purpose or domain specific processors
or ASIC , PLD.
 COTS
• Examples
• Remote control toy car
• RF circuitry part.
• High performance, high frequency microwave
electronics.
• High BW A to D convertors.
• UV/IR detectors.
 COTS
• Advantages
 Readily available.
 Cheap
 developer can cut development time to a
great extent.
 Reduces the time to market the embedded
system.
 COTS
• Limitations:
 manufacturer of CTOS components may
withdraw the product or discontinue the
production at any time because of rapid
change in technology.

 affect the commercial manufacturer of the

embedded system which make use of specific
CTOS product.