UNIT I

DRIVE CHARECTERISTICS
 TYPES OF DRIVES

MECHANICAL ELECTRICAL

Individual Group Multi motor

 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRIC
DRIVE
Easy to start
Speed control
Size
Pollution free
Maintenance
No wear and tear
Cost
KIND OF ELECTRIC DRIVES:-
 Group drive
 Individual drive
 Multimotor drive
GROUP ELECTRIC DRIVE:-
It has single motor of sufficient capacity to drive an entire
group of machines used in a shop.
INDIVIDUAL ELECTRIC DRIVE:-
In the individual drive there is one motor for each working
machine.
MULTIMOTOR DRIVE:-
This type of drive has more than one motor for each working
machine.
 CHOICE (OR) SELECTION OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES:-

1. STEADY STATE OPERATION REQUIREMENTS

 Nature of speed – torque characteristics
 Speed regulation
 Speed range
 Efficiency
 Duty cycle
 Quadrants of Operation
 Speed fluctuations
2. TRANSIENT OPERATION REQUIRNMENTS
 Value of acceleration and deceleration
 Starting
 Braking and reversing performance

3. REQUIREMENT RELATED TO THE SOURCE

 Type of source
 Magnitude of voltage
 Voltage fluctuations
 Power factor
 Harmonics
4. OTHER FACTORS:-
 Capital and running cost
 Maintenance needs, life
 Space and weight restrictions
 Environment and location
 Reliability.
Components in electric drives

Power Modulator Function:

• Modulates flow of power from the source the motor in such a
manner that motor is imparted speed- torque characteristics
required by the load
• During the transient operations, such as starting, braking & speed
reversal, it restricts source and motor currents within permissible
values
• Converts electrical energy of the source in the form of suitable to
the motor
• Selects the mode of operation of the motor i.e. motoring or
braking

Motors
• DC motors - permanent magnet – wound field
• AC motors – induction, synchronous (IPMSM, SMPSM),
brushless DC
• Applications, cost, environment
Components in electric drives
Power Modulator
To provide a regulated power supply
• Combination of power electronic converters
• More efficient
• Flexible
• Compact
• AC-DC DC-DC DC-AC AC-AC
Control unit
• Complexity depends on performance requirement
• analog- noisy, inflexible, ideally has infinite bandwidth.
• digital – immune to noise, configurable, bandwidth is smaller than
the analog controller’s
• DSP/microprocessor – flexible, lower bandwidth - DSPs perform
faster operation than microprocessors (multiplication in single
cycle), can perform complex estimations

Power sources
• DC – batteries, fuel cell, photovoltaic - unregulated
• AC – Single- three- phase utility, wind generator - unregulated
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Overview of AC and DC drives

DC DRIVES AC DRIVES
The commutator makes the drives Inexpensive
bulky, costly & heavy

The power converter is simple & The inverter technology is still being
inexpensive improved control is complex

Line commutation Forced commutation

Power Factor is Poor Better
Fast Response & Smooth control Response depends upon the type of control

Small power/weight ratio Large power/weight ratio

Sparkling at the brushes No such problems

 DYNAMICS OF ELECTRICAL DRIVES
Fundamental torque Equations

d
T  TL  ( Jm )
dt
J = moment of inertia of motor – load system, [kg – mx2]
Wm = Angular velocity of motor shaft, [rad/sec]
T = Developed Motor torque, [N-M]
TL = Load torque, [N-M]
 dm dJ
J  m 
(1)
dt dt
dJ
0 Then we can rewrite (1) as
dt
dm dm
T  TL  J T  TL  J 
(2)
dt dt
Equation -2 shows that the motor torque in balanced
by a load torque TL and a dynamic torque J
[dωm/dt]

Driver acceleration or deceleration depends on

whether motor torque T is greater or less load
Torque TL.
CLASSIFICATION OF LOAD TORQUES:-
Various load torque can be classified into two broad
categories

 ACTIVE LOAD TORQUES:-

Load torques which have the potential to drive the
motor under equilibrium conditions are called active load
torques.
Such load torques usually retain their sign when the
drive rotation is changed
e.g. torque due to tension, compression
 PASSIVE LOAD TORQUES:-
Load torques which always oppose the motion and
change their sign on the reversal of motion are called
passive load torques.
e.g. torque due to friction, cutting
COMPONENTS OF LOAD TORQUES:-

Load torques TL can be consists of following components:-

 FRICTION TORQUE [TF]:-
Friction will be present at the motor shaft and also
in various part of the load.
 WINDAGE TORQUE [TW]:-
When a motor runs, the wind generates a torque
opposing the motion.
 MECHANICAL TORQUE [Tm]:-
This torque depends upon load. It may depend upon
speed, time or independent on speed, time & position.
Torque required to do the useful mechanical works.
 FRICTION TORQUE [TF]:-

Friction torque will be slightly greater than

zero at standstill. Friction at zero speed is
called stiction or static torque
It has three components
Component Tv which varies linearly with
speed (Viscous friction) Tv=BWm
Tc-independent of speed (Coulomb
friction)
Ts – Standstill torque( only at this position)
 WINDAGE TORQUE [TW]:-
Windage torque is proportional to speed
squared Tw=C(Wm)2
 CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF
LOADS:-
Industrial loads can be classified into,
 Constant torque type load.
 Generator type – torque proportional to speed (Tαω).
 Fan type – torque proportional to square of speed
[Tαω2].
 Constant power type – torque inversely proportional
to speed [Tα1/ω].
CONSTANT TORQUE TYPE LOAD:-

Speed-torque characteristics of this type of load is

given by T=K.
e.g. shaping, cutting, grinding requires constant torque
irrespective of speed
Torque proportional to speed
GENERATOR TYPE LOAD:-

Separately excited dc generators connected to a constant

resistance load, eddy current brakes and calendaring
machines have a speed-torque characteristics given by

T  k
Torque Proportional to square of the speed:
FAN TYPE LOAD:-

T 2

T  K 2

E.g.: Fan ,rotary pumps,

compressors and
ship propellers.
Torque inversely proportional to speed
CONSTANT POWER TYPE LOAD:-
e.g. lathes, boring machines, milling
machines, steel mill coiler, electric traction
load exhibit hyperbolic speed

characteristics
Most of the loads require
extra effort at the time of starting to over
come static friction. In power application it is
known a Break away torque and the control
engineers call it as stiction.

1 K
T ,T 
»
 
»
For a constant torque of load, the modified
characteristics due to stiction.
TF = Friction torque
Multi quadrant Operation


Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1
Forward braking Forward motoring
T

Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4
Reverse motoring Reverse braking
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Elementary principles of mechanics – effect of gearing

Motors designed for high speed are smaller in size and volume

Low speed applications use gear to utilize high speed motors

m m1
Motor Load 1, n1
Te Tl1
J2

m2
n2 Load 2,
J1 Tl2
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Elementary principles of mechanics – effect of gearing

m m1
Motor Load 1, n1
Te Tl1
J2
m2
n2 Load 2,
J1
Tl2

m
J equ  J1  a 22 J 2
Motor Equivalent
Te Load , Tlequ
Tlequ = Tl1 + a2Tl2

Jequ
a2 = n1/n2
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES - MODULE 1

Elementary principles of mechanics

Combination of rotational and translational motions

Fl Fe
Te, 

r M r
Tl
v

dv 
Fe  Fl  M Te = r(Fe), Tl = r(Fl), v =r
dt

d
Te  Tl  r 2M
dt

r2M - Equivalent moment inertia of the

linearly moving mass
 EQUILIBRIUM OPERATING POINT AND ITS STEADY STATE STABILITY:-
Stability can be identified as either steady state or transient. The
conditions of the stability depend on the operating point [B].
At constant speed, if the developed motor torque is equal to the sum of
load torque and friction, then the drive in its state of equilibrium.
 Influencing factors of stability:-
– Inertia of the rotating motor (J).
– Induction of the motor (L).
STEADY STATE STABILITY OF AN ELECTRIC DRIVE:-
• Steady – state stability
• Transient stability
When its equilibrium state is disturbed. It is necessary to consider the
two types of disturbances.
STEADY – STATE STABILITY:-
Changes from the state of equilibrium take place slowly and the
effect of either the inertia of the rotating masses or that of
inductance is insignificant.
TRANSIENT STABILITY
Sudden and fast changers from the equilibrium state, as a
result of which the effect of neither the inertia or nor the
induction can be ignored.

MATHEMATICAL CONDITIONS FOR STEADY STATE STABILITY

The nature of electric machines stability can be obtained by
solving the differential equations of the motor along with the
dynamic equation of motion.
Let Tm, TL and w be the motor torque, load torque and
speed.
Let Small deviations be denoted by ΔTm, Δ TL and Δ w
Torque equation becomes,

d d
J. J  TL  Tm  Tm  0 
(1)
dt dt
d
J  TL  Tm  0  (2)
dt
d ( )
(2)in (1)  J TL  Tm  0  (3)
dt
Assume increments are so small then expressed as
linear functions of the change in speed.

dTm
Tm  .
d
dTL
TL  .  (5)
d
Where dTm dTL indicate derivatives at the point
and
d d
of equilibrium. (4), (5) in (3)

d ( ) dTL dTm

J. [  ]  0  (6)
dt d d
 1
 dTL dTm
  ( ) 0 .e [ J
 ]t  (7)
d d
the exponent will always be negative, if
dTL dTm
  0  (8)
d d
Equation (8) describes that for decrease in speed
motor torque exceed the load torque and increase in
speed the motor torque must be less than the load
torque.
TL’ – State operating point.
TL’’ – Unstable operating point.
Steady-state stability
 MULTIQUARDANT DYNAMIC OPERATION:
1) Constant Speed Drive
2) Multi speed drives
3) Multi motor drives
4) Variable speed drives

1) Constant speed drive:

 Motor operates at rated condition
 Converter is not connected between the source and the motor during
normal running
 Converter may be connected during starting and also sometimes during
braking
2) Multi speed drive:
 Some drives operate at discrete speed settings. These drives are called
Multi-speed drives

 There are applications where the speeds of a number of motors must be

controlled simultaneously. These motors are fed from a common
converter. Such drives are called Multi-speed drive
 MULTIQUARDANT DYNAMIC OPERATION:

3) Variable speed drive:

 It is also called constant power drive if the maximum power capability of
the drive does not change with the change in speed setting
 The corresponding mode is called constant power mode or region

4) Multi motor drive:

 There are applications where the speeds of a number of motors must be
controlled simultaneously. These motors are fed from a common
converter. Such drives are called Multi-motor drive

CONSTANT POWER MODE:

If the maximum power capability of the drive does not change with
change in speed setting
CONSTANT TORQUE MODE:
If the maximum torque capability of the drive does not change with
change in speed settings
 Various speed transitions classifications

1) Decrease in speed in the same direction

2) Speed reversal
3) Increase in speed in the same direction
 ACCELERATION, DECELERATION, STARTING AND
STOPPING:-

ELECTRICAL DRIVES – MODES OF OPERATION:-

An electrical drive operates in three modes

 Steady – State mode

 Acceleration mode including starting
 Deceleration mode including stopping
STEADY STATE MODE:-

 Steady state mode of Operation takes place when

motor torque equals the load torque.
 Change in speed is achieved by varying the steady –
State motor speed torque curve so that motor torque
equals the load torque at the new speed.
 Steady state Operation can be obtained by adding a
mechanical brake which will produce a torque in a
direction to oppose the motion. The steady state
operation is obtained at a speed for which braking
torque equals the load torque.
ACCELERATION MODE:-
 Acceleration mode and declaration modes are
transient Operations. Drive Operation mode
Whenever an increase in its speed is required. In
accelerating mode, the developed torque is more
than the load torque. (T≥TL).
 Increase in electric motor torque is accompanied by
an increase in motor current . Care must be to
restrict the motor current within a value which is
safe for both motor and power converter
 In applications involving acceleration periods of long
duration, Current must not be allowed to exceed
rated value of the motor.
 When acceleration conditions are of short duration a
current higher than the rated value is allowed during
aceleration
SOFT START:-
In some applications the motor should
accelerate smoothly, with any jerk. This
is achieved when the starting torque
can be increased steplessly from its
zero value. Such a start is known as
soft start.
DECELERATION MODE:-

 Deceleration occurs when load torque exceeds the

motor torque. In those application where load torque
is always present with substantial magnitude,
enough deceleration can be achieved by simply
reducing the motor torque zero.
 In those application where simply reducing the
motor torque to zero does not provide enough
deceleration, mechanical brakes may be used to
produce the required magnitude of deceleration.
Alternatively, electric braking may be employed.
Now both – motor and the load torque – oppose the
motion, thus producing larger deceleration.
CLASSIFICATION OF LOADS:-
• Continuous constant mode
• Continuous variable type mode
• Pulsating loads
• Impact loads
• Short time intermittent loads
• Short time loads.
Need for braking:
• If a motor running at some speed is disconnected from the supply the only
opposing torque will be the load torque Tl. The motor will stop only after the
kinetic energy stored in its inertia is dissipated. When either the load is small
or the inertia is large, the motor takes a long time to stop. In applications
requiring frequent stops, the stopping time must be reduced by introducing
additional opposing torque by the use of electric braking.
• In fraction rapid emergency stops are essential to prevent accidents.
• In some applications accurate stops are required. Eg, lifts, machine tools.
• In applications involving active loads the drive speed will reach dangerous
values if braking force is not provided by the motor. Eg, when a loaded hoist is
being lowered, the motor should provide a braking force to hold the speed
within safe limits.

TYPES OF BRAKING:
1) Mechanical Braking
2) Electrical Braking

ELECTRICAL BRAKING OF DC MOTORS:-

 Regenerative braking
 Dynamic or Rheostatic braking
 Counter current braking
 BRAKING OF DC MOTOR
Dynamic Braking
• Dynamic braking of a DC motor is obtained by disconnecting it from the source
and closing the armature circuit through a suitable resistance the motor works
as a generator, producing the braking torque.
• Dynamic braking is inefficient method of braking, because all the generated
energy is wasted as heat in resistances.

Plugging
• Plugging occurs when motor windings are connected for reverse direction of
rotation when armature is still rotating in the forward direction. If the
connections to the armature terminals are reversed the motor tends to rotate in
the opposite direction.
• This braking is employed in the following cases
• For quick stopping of the motor
• For reversing drives requiring a short time for reversal
 BRAKING OF DC MOTORS:-

REGENERATIVE BRAKING:-
The motor operates as a generator and returns the braking energy to the
supply.
Conditions to be satisfied for regenerative braking
• Source should have the ability to accept the regenerated power
• The source motor circuit should have the ability to carry current in either
direction.
• The induced emf Eb should be made greater than the source voltage V either
by increasing Eb or decreasing V. Eb can be increased by over exciting the
machine. So the speed increase above the rated or normal value. V can be
decreased by power modulators.
 BRAKING OF DC MOTORS:-
Regenerative braking of DC series motor
• The nature of speed – torque curve of DC series motor is such
that it does not extend to the second quadrant. As no load is
approached, the speed increases asymptotically to the speed
axis. This implies that an increase in speed of DC series motor
is followed by a decrease in armature current and hence the
field flux. So regeneration is not possible in a plain DC series
motor, since the field current can not be made greater than the
armature current ie) The machine will not able to self excite
against supply voltage
Alternative way to obtain regeneration in DC series motor
i. Series motor is connected as shunt motor during regeneration
period.
ii. DC chopper can be used as a power modulator so that source
voltage is reduced below the induced emf.
 V I a R
N 
K e K e
Where, V E
Ia  ; Td  K tI a
Ra
V Tb Ra
N 
K e K e K t 2
Regenerative braking Torque –
speed curve of a separately
excited DC motor
BRAKING OF AC MOTOR:-
Following methods are employed for
braking of an induction motor.
Regenerative braking.
Plugging or reverse voltage braking
Dynamic or Rheostatic braking.
– Ac dynamic braking
– Self excited braking using capacitors
– Dc dynamic braking
– Zero sequence braking
REGENERATIVE BRAKING
Power i/p to an induction motor is given by
pin  3VI s cos s
Where  s is the phase angle between stator
phase Voltage (V) and Stator phase Current
I s.  s 90 0
For motoring Operation
In the regenerative braking Operation, the
motor Operates as a generator, While it is
still Connected to the supply. Here, the motor
speed is greater than the synchronous
speed. Mechanical energy is Converted in to
the supply and rest of the energy is lost an
heat in the winding and bearings of the
 If the rotor speed becomes greater than
synchronous speed, relative speed between
the rotor Conductors and air gap rotating field
reverses. This reverses the rotor induced emf,
rotor current and Component of stator current
which balances the rotor ampere turns.
 Consequently, angle becomes greater than 900
and power flow reverses giving regenerative
braking.
 The nature of speed – torque Characteristics is
shown.
 When fed from source of fixed frequency.
Regenerative braking is possible only for
speeds greater than synchronous speed.
 With a variable frequency source it can also be
 ACCELERATION, DECELERATION,
STARTING AND STOPPING:-
ELECTRICAL DRIVES – MODES OF
OPERATION:-
An electrical drive operates in three
modes

Steady – State mode

Acceleration mode including starting
Deceleration mode including stopping
STEADU STATE MODE:-
 Steady state mode of Operation takes
place when motor torque equals the load
torque.
 Change in speed is achieved by varying
the steady – State motor speed torque
curve so that motor torque equals the
load torque at the new speed.
 Steady state Operation can be obtained
by adding a mechanical brake which will
produce a torque in a direction to oppose
the motion. The steady state operation is
obtained at a speed for which braking
ACCELERATION MODE:-
Acceleration mode and declaration
modes are transient Operations. Drive
Operation mode Whenever an increase
in its speed is required. In accelerating
mode, the developed torque is more
than the load torque. (T≥TL).
In applications involving acceleration
periods of long duration, Current must
not be allowed to exceed duration,
Current must not be allowed during
acceleration.
SOFT START:-
 In some applications the motor should
accelerate smoothly, with any jeck. This is
achieved when the starting torque can be
increased steplessly from its zero value.
Such a start is known as soft start.
DECELERATION MODE:-
 In this mode developed torque is less
than the load torque (T<TL).
 Motor operation in deceleration mode is
required when decrease in its speed is
required. According to equation. dm
T  TL  J
dt
 Deceleration occurs when load torque
exceeds the motor torque. In those
application where load torque is always
present with substantial magnitude,
enough deceleration can be achieved by
simply reducing the motor torque zero.
 In those application where simply
reducing the motor torque to zero does
not provide enough deceleration,
mechanical brakes may be used to
produce the required magnitude of
deceleration. Alternatively, electric
braking may be employed. Now both –
motor and the load torque – oppose the
 POWER CONVERTERS:-
PO To
Rectifiers   
Chopper Pi Te
Inverters Power[WATTS ]
To 
Cyloconverter Speed [rad / sec]
po
Po – o/p power in hp.
 N  M
Pi
Nr – Speed in rpm.
Wm – Speed in rad/sec.
Te  To  Tloss N  M Te –
internal torque
 EQUATIONS GOVERINING MOTOR – LOAD
DYNAMICS:-
Motor – Load system:-
Power supply Geared coupling

Speed & Torque Drive Motor Load

Control

TL  T fw  Ta  Tm
Tfw – Torque component to overcome friction and
windage. This accompanies mechanical motion of
shaft.
Ta – Torque required to accelerate the load to the
desired speed.
Tm – Torque required to do the prescribed
mechanical works, ie., to run the load at the Desired
Speed.
 ELECRTICAL MACHINE:-
DC Machines - Shunt
- Series
- Compound
- Permanent magnet
AC Machines
Induction – Squeirel cage
– Wound – rotor
– Linear induction
Synchronous - Wound field motor
– Permanent magnet
synchronous
 Load and motor steady state torque

At constant speed, Te= Tl

Steady state speed is at point of intersection between Te and Tl of the
steady state torque characteristics

Torque Te Tl

Steady state
speed

r3 r1r r2 Speed