Chapter 02 Measurement

2 Measurement
Chapter
The unique value of science is its ability to make predictions. Scientific predictions are
possible because science only deals with physical quantities that can be measured.
2.1 Measurement of
Length
Chapter 2: Measurement
Length & Measurement
1. Rulers and Measuring Tapes
2. Vernier Calipers 3. Micrometer Screw

Gauge
Parallax error
For accurate length measurement using a ruler, the
eye should be positioned in line and perpendicular to
the point to be read in order to avoid parallax error.
Parallax errors can also be reduced

when measuring irregular shape
object by using set-squares.
Metre Rule and Measuring Tape
The metre rule is used to measure lengths up to 1.00 m.
Both the metre rule and measuring tape has a

precision of 1 mm.
Use of Metre Rule
If the ends of a metre rule are worn out …
The length of the object is the

difference between the readings of
its end points.
For very small length measurements, like the diameter of a
thin wire, a ruler is unable to yield accurate results.
Hence,
Instruments such as vernier calipers and micrometer screw
gauges are used.
Vernier Calipers
Micrometer Screw Gauge
Vernier Calipers
Vernier calipers make use of a main scale and a vernier
scale to increase its precision to 0.1 mm.
The range of a set of vernier calipers is typically around

10 to 15 cm.
The following picture shows the components of a vernier caliper:
Using Vernier Calipers
Vernier calipers can measure small lengths

accurately up to 2 decimal places in cm.
How to read Main scale 2.1? cm

1. Write down main scale reading Vernier scale 0.04 cm
2. Add vernier scale reading 2.14 cm
Vernier Calipers
Due to wear and tear, vernier calipers may not give zero
reading when the jaws are fully closed.
This results in
and this must be

accounted for in
calculations
For example,
If the reading on a vernier scale = 3.22 cm
Zero error = - 0.07 cm
Diameter of cylinder = 3.22 + 0.07 = 3.29 cm
Micrometer Screw Gauge
The micrometer screw gauge makes use of a main scale and a
thimble scale to improve its precision to 0.01 mm.
The range of a micrometer screw gauge is around 2.5 cm.
The main scale is marked in

divisions of 0.5 mm.
The thimble scale has 50 divisions.
Each division measures 0.01 mm.
Using Micrometer Screw Gauge
A micrometer screw gauge can measure small

lengths accurately up to 2 decimal places in mm.
How to read Sleeve scale 4.5? mm

1. Write down main scale (sleeve) reading Thimble scale 0.12 mm
2. Add thimble scale reading 4.62 mm
Measurement of Time
Stopwatches, are the most common instrument for
measuring time in the school laboratory. SI unit for time is
second.
The uncertainty introduced by the random reaction of a

person is known as human reaction time error. It is typically
of the order of 0.1 to 0.2 s.
2.2 Scales
Linear and Non-Linear Scales
A linear scale is one in A non-linear scale is

which the divisions of one in which the
the units are equally divisions of the units are
spaced. not equally spaced.
Digital and Analogue Scales
The readings for a digital meter

changes by a fixed minimum
amount and can be read-off
directly from the display.
The reading of an analogue

scale is estimated from an
indicator that moves
over a scale.
2.3 Errors
Measurement errors are the uncertainties in a measurement due to the
limitations of the instruments or methods used for the measurement.
Note that,
True value = Measured value ± Experimental error
When recording a measurement, it is important to record the

uncertainty of the measurement as well.
Two concepts that are related to errors are:
1 . Accuracy
2 . Precision
Accuracy
Accuracy is the closeness of a measurement of a physical

quantity to the true value.
Precision
Precision refers to the closeness of several measurements.

If repeated measurements of a quantity are very close to
each other, we say that the measurements are precise.
Significant Figures (s.f.)
It is important to record the number of significant figures
correctly
Rules for recording significant figures are:
1. The uncertainty of a scale reading is half of the smallest division.
2. Uncertainties are expressed as 1 significant figure.
Values of less than 5 are truncated and values greater than or equal
to 5 are rounded-up.
3. Record the measured value to the same decimal places (d.p.) as its
error.
For example,
If the uncertainty is 0.05 m and the length of an object is 5.835 m, we
should record the length as 5.84 ± 0.05 m (2 d.p.).
Combining errors or uncertainties
We often encounter physical quantities that are the sum or products

of different measurements. In such cases, the calculated error or
uncertainty is combined using a few simple rules:
1. Addition and subtraction

When adding two or more quantities, the total uncertainty is
given by the sum of the uncertainty of the individual quantity.
2. Multiplication and division

When multiplying or dividing two or more quantities, the total
fractional uncertainty is given by the sum of the fractional
uncertainty of the individual quantity.
2.4 Simple Pendulum
Galileo investigated the characteristics of a pendulum’s motion
and discovered that its period:
• is independent of the bob’s mass;

• is independent of its amplitude; and
• varies directly with the square-root
of its length.
The period of a pendulum is the time taken for the bob to move
one complete oscillation
The amplitude of the oscillation is the maximum displacement of

the pendulum bob.
2.5 Area
Area is a quantity that measures the size of a surface.
The SI unit for area is square metres, m2.
The area of a square of length, l = l × l = l2
The area of a rectangle = length × breadth = l × b
The area of a circle of radius r = π r2
The area of a triangle = 1/2 (base × height)
The area of a trapezium = 1/2 (sum of parallel sides) × height
2.6 Volume
The volume of regular shaped objects can be calculated from its
dimensions.
The volume of solids that do not absorb water can be measured
by the amount of water they displace.
When a solid object is placed into a measured volume of water, the

volume of water that goes up represents the volume of the solid object.
Volume of solid
= Volume of water displaced
= V2 - V1
To measure the volume of solids that float, attach the solid to a sinker.
2.7 Density
Why did the 5-kg
cylinder sink instead
of the 8-kg prism?
8 kg
5 kg
Let’s take a look at the two boxes, A and B. Compare box A and box B.
Similarity: Volume
Difference: Mass
Defining density
Density is defined as mass per unit volume . It is a derived quantity.
We say that box A has a higher density than box B.
Mass kg
Density = 1 g/cm3 = 1 000 kg/m3
Volume m3
SI unit of density is kg/m3.
Relative Density
Relative density (RD) is the ratio of the density of a given

substance to the density of a reference substance. Relative
density does not have a unit as it is a ratio.
RD = Density of substance
––––––––––––––––––––––
Density of reference substance

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2 Measurement

1. Rulers and Measuring Tapes

2. Vernier Calipers 3. Micrometer Screw

Parallax errors can also be reduced

Both the metre rule and measuring tape has a

Use of Metre Rule

If the ends of a metre rule are worn out …

The length of the object is the

The range of a set of vernier calipers is typically around

The following picture shows the components of a vernier caliper:

Vernier calipers can measure small lengths

How to read Main scale 2.1? cm

and this must be

The main scale is marked in

A micrometer screw gauge can measure small

How to read Sleeve scale 4.5? mm

The uncertainty introduced by the random reaction of a

A linear scale is one in A non-linear scale is

The readings for a digital meter

The reading of an analogue

When recording a measurement, it is important to record the

Two concepts that are related to errors are:

Accuracy is the closeness of a measurement of a physical

Precision refers to the closeness of several measurements.

We often encounter physical quantities that are the sum or products

1. Addition and subtraction

2. Multiplication and division

• is independent of the bob’s mass;

The amplitude of the oscillation is the maximum displacement of

The area of a square of length, l = l × l = l2

The area of a rectangle = length × breadth = l × b

The area of a circle of radius r = π r2

The area of a triangle = 1/2 (base × height)

The area of a trapezium = 1/2 (sum of parallel sides) × height

When a solid object is placed into a measured volume of water, the

SI unit of density is kg/m3.

Relative density (RD) is the ratio of the density of a given

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