6.

1 Digestion & Absorption

Essential idea: The structure of the wall of the small intestine allows it to move,
digest and absorb food
Understandings:

■ The contraction of circular and longitudinal muscle of the small intestine mixes the food with enzymes and
moves it along the gut
■ Enzymes digest most macromolecules in food into monomers in the small intestine
■ The pancreas secretes enzymes into the lumen of the small intestine
■ Villi increase the surface area of epithelium over which absorption is carried out
■ Villi absorb monomers formed by digestion as well as mineral ions and vitamins
■ Different methods of membrane transport are required to absorb different nutrients

Applications:

■ Processes occurring in the small intestine that result in the digestion of starch and transport of the products
of digestion to the liver
■ Use of dialysis tubing to model absorption of digested food in the intestine

Skills:

■ Production of an annotated diagram of the digestive system

■ Identification of tissue layers in transverse sections of the small intestine viewed with a microscope or in a
micrograph
Digestive System
Skill: Production of an annotated diagram of the digestive system

There are two major groups of organs which comprise the human digestive system:

■ The alimentary canal consists of organs through which food actually passes (oesophagus,
stomach, small & large intestine)

■ The accessory organs aid in digestion but do not actually transfer food (salivary glands,
pancreas, liver, gall bladder)
Digestive System
Skill: Production of an annotated
diagram of the digestive system
Digestive System Alimentary Canal

Skill: Production of an annotated diagram of the digestive system

Oesophagus
• A hollow tube connecting the oral cavity to the stomach (separated from the trachea by the epiglottis)
• Food is mixed with saliva and then is moved in a bolus via the action of peristalsis

Stomach
• A temporary storage tank where food is mixed by churning and protein digestion begins
• It is lined by gastric pits that release digestive juices, which create an acidic environment (pH ~2)

Small Intestine
• A long, highly folded tube where usable food substances (nutrients) are absorbed
• Consists of three sections – the duodenum, jejunum and ileum

Large Intestine
• The final section of the alimentary canal, where water and dissolved minerals (i.e. ions) are absorbed
• Consists of the ascending / transverse / descending / sigmoidal colon, as well as the rectum
Digestive System Accessory Organs

Skill: Production of an annotated diagram of the digestive system

Salivary Glands
• Release saliva to moisten food and contains enzymes (e.g. amylase) to initiate starch breakdown
• Salivary glands include the parotid gland, submandibular gland and sublingual gland

Pancreas
• Produces a broad spectrum of enzymes that are released into the small intestine via the
duodenum
• Also secretes certain hormones (insulin, glucagon), which regulate blood sugar concentrations

Liver
• Takes the raw materials absorbed by the small intestine and uses them to make key chemicals
• Its role includes detoxification, storage, metabolism, bile production and haemoglobin breakdown

Gall Bladder
• The gall bladder stores the bile produced by the liver (bile salts are used to emulsify fats)
• Bile stored in the gall bladder is released into the small intestine via the common bile duct
 Skill: Production of an annotated
Digestive System diagram of the digestive system
Digestive System
Skill: Production of an annotated diagram of the digestive system

Key Features:

■ Stomach should look like a ‘J’-shaped bag and be connected to the oesophagus and small intestine

■ Liver should look like a right-angled triangle and be superimposed to the left of the stomach (right side of
the human)

■ Bile duct (connected to gall bladder) and pancreatic duct should both feed into a U-shaped bend of the
small intestine

■ Small intestine should be thinner in width than the large intestine

Stages of Digestion
The main purpose of the digestive system is to break large molecules down into smaller subunits due to the fact that:

■ Large molecules are typically chemically inert and need to be broken down and reassembled into usable products
■ Large molecules are typically insoluble and cannot be absorbed into cells, whereas smaller subunits are soluble

The process of digestion occurs across a number of stages, including:

■ Ingestion – food is taken into the body via the act of eating

■ Digestion – food is broken down both physically (e.g. mastication) and chemically (e.g. enzymatic hydrolysis)

■ Absorption – digested food products are absorbed into the bloodstream and transported to cells

■ Assimilation – digested food products are converted into the fluid and solid parts of a cell / tissue

■ Elimination – undigested food residues are egested from the body as semi-solid faeces
Stages of Digestion
Mechanical Digestion
Food can be digested by a combination of two methods –
mechanical digestion and chemical digestion

■ In mechanical digestion, food is physically broken down into

smaller fragments via the acts of chewing (mouth), churning
(stomach) and segmentation (small intestine)

Mechanical Digestion

Chewing (Mouth)

■ Food is initially broken down in the mouth by the grinding action

of teeth (chewing or mastication)

■ The tongue pushes the food towards the back of the throat,
where it travels down the esophagus as a bolus

■ The epiglottis prevents the bolus from entering the trachea,

while the uvula prevents the bolus from entering the nasal cavity
Mechanical Digestion
Food can be digested by a combination of two methods –
mechanical digestion and chemical digestion

■ In mechanical digestion, food is physically broken down

into smaller fragments via the acts of chewing (mouth),
churning (stomach) and segmentation (small intestine)

Mechanical Digestion

Churning (Stomach)
■ The stomach lining contains muscles which physically
squeeze and mix the food with strong digestive juices
('churning’)

■ Food is digested within the stomach for several hours and

is turned into a creamy paste called chyme

■ Eventually the chyme enters the small intestine

(duodenum) where absorption will occur
Mechanical Digestion
Movement of Food

Peristalsis

■ Peristalsis is the principal mechanism of movement in the oesophagus, although it also occurs in both the
stomach and gut
■ Continuous segments of longitudinal smooth muscle rhythmically contract and relax
■ Food is moved unidirectionally along the alimentary canal in a caudal direction (mouth to anus)
Mechanical Digestion
Movement of Food

Segmentation

■ Segmentation involves the contraction and relaxation of non-adjacent segments of circular smooth muscle in the
intestines
■ Segmentation contractions move chyme in both directions, allowing for a greater mixing of food with digestive juices
■ While segmentation helps to physically digest food particles, its bidirectional propulsion of chyme can slow overall
movement
Chemical Digestion
Food can be digested by a combination of two methods – mechanical digestion and chemical digestion

■ In chemical digestion, food is broken down by the action of chemical agents (such as enzymes, acids and bile)

Stomach Acids

■ The stomach contains gastric glands which release digestive acids to create a low pH environment (pH ~2)

■ The acidic environment functions to denature proteins and other macromolecules, aiding in their overall
digestion

■ The stomach epithelium contains a mucous membrane which prevents the acids from damaging the gastric
lining

■ The pancreas releases alkaline compounds (e.g. bicarbonate ions), which neutralise the acids as they enter the
intestine
Chemical Digestion
Food can be digested by a combination of two methods – mechanical digestion and chemical digestion

■ In chemical digestion, food is broken down by the action of chemical agents (such as enzymes, acids and bile)

Bile

■ The liver produces a fluid called bile which is stored and concentrated within the gall bladder prior to release into
the intestine

■ Bile contains bile salts which interact with fat globules and divide them into smaller droplets (emulsification)

■ The emulsification of fats increases the total surface area available for enzyme activity (lipase)
Chemical Digestion
Food can be digested by a combination of two methods – mechanical digestion and chemical digestion

■ In chemical digestion, food is broken down by the action of chemical agents (such as enzymes, acids and bile)

Enzymes

■ Enzymes are biological catalysts which speed up the rate of a chemical reaction (i.e. digestion) by lowering
activation energy
■ Enzymes allow digestive processes to therefore occur at body temperatures and at sufficient speeds for survival
requirements
■ Enzymes are specific for a substrate and so can allow digestion of certain molecules to occur independently in
distinct locations
Chemical Digestion
Digestive enzymes are secreted predominantly by the pancreas, although other organs also contribute (salivary
gland, stomach)

■ The type of enzyme secreted and location of secretion depends on the specific macromolecule required for
hydrolysis

Carbohydrates

■ Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth with the release of amylase from the salivary glands (amylase =
starch digestion)

■ Amylase is also secreted by the pancreas in order to continue carbohydrate digestion within the small intestine

■ Enzymes for disaccharide hydrolysis are often immobilised on the epithelial lining of the small intestine, near
channel proteins

■ Humans do not possess an enzyme capable of digesting cellulose (cellulase) and hence it passes through the
body undigested
Chemical Digestion
Digestive enzymes are secreted predominantly by the pancreas, although other organs also contribute (salivary
gland, stomach)

■ The type of enzyme secreted and location of secretion depends on the specific macromolecule required for
hydrolysis

Proteins

■ Protein digestion begins in the stomach with the release of proteases that function optimally in an acidic pH (e.g.
pepsin = pH 2)

■ Smaller polypeptide chains enter the small intestine where they are broken down by endopeptidases released by
the pancreas

■ These endopeptidases work optimally in neutral environments (pH ~ 7) as the pancreas neutralises the acids in
the intestine
Chemical Digestion
Digestive enzymes are secreted predominantly by the pancreas, although other organs also contribute (salivary
gland, stomach)

■ The type of enzyme secreted and location of secretion depends on the specific macromolecule required for
hydrolysis

Lipids

■ Lipid breakdown occurs in the intestines, beginning with emulsification of fat globules by bile released from the
gall bladder
■ The smaller fat droplets are then digested by lipases released from the pancreas

Nucleic Acids

■ The pancreas also releases nucleases which digest nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) into smaller nucleosides
Chemical Digestion
Sections of the Gut
Small Intestines

The small intestine is comprised of three distinct regions: duodenum, jejunum and ileum

Duodenum

■ First segment of the small intestine which is fed by digestive fluids from the pancreas and gall bladder
■ Bile emulsifies fat globules into smaller droplets and pancreatic juice contains digestive enzymes
■ Sodium bicarbonate is released from the pancreas to neutralise stomach acids such that intestinal pH is ~ 7

Jejunum

■ Second segment of the small intestine where the digestive process is largely completed
■ Pancreatic enzymes and enzymes released from intestinal glands complete the breakdown of sugars, proteins and
lipids

Ileum

■ Final segment of the small intestine with the principal function of nutrient absorption
■ The intestinal tract is highly folded (villi and microvilli) to increase surface area and optimise material absorption
■ Bile is also absorbed here and returned to the liver via blood vessels
Sections of the Gut
Large Intestine

The principle function of the large intestine is to

absorb any remaining water and mineral ions

■ The large intestine is divided into the

ascending colon, transverse colon,
descending colon, sigmoidal colon and
rectum

■ The appendix is also considered a part of

the large intestine although it is a vestigial
remnant without an important function
Small Intestine
Skill: Identification of tissue layers in transverse sections of the small intestine viewed with a microscope or in a
micrograph

The human intestines function to absorb the products of digestion and have specialised structures to fulfil this
function

■ The small intestine absorbs usable food substances (i.e. nutrients – monosaccharides, amino acids, fatty acids,
vitamins, etc.)
■ The large intestine absorbs water and dissolved minerals (i.e. ions) from the indigestible food residues

Structure of the Small Intestine

The small intestine is composed of four main tissue layers, which are (from outside to centre):

■ Serosa – a protective outer covering composed of a layer of cells reinforced by fibrous connective tissue
■ Muscle layer – outer layer of longitudinal muscle (peristalsis) and inner layer of circular muscle (segmentation)
■ Submucosa – composed of connective tissue separating the muscle layer from the innermost mucosa
■ Mucosa – a highly folded inner layer which absorbs material through its surface epithelium from the intestinal
lumen
Small Intestine Ileum

Skill: Identification of tissue layers in transverse sections of the small intestine viewed with a microscope or in a
micrograph
Small Intestine
The inner epithelial lining of the intestine is highly folded into finger-like projections called villi (singular: villus)

■ Many villi will protrude into the intestinal lumen, greatly increasing the available surface area for material
absorption

Features of Villi

Intestinal villi contain several key features which facilitate the absorption of digestive products (monomers, ions and
vitamins):

■ Microvilli – Ruffling of epithelial membrane further increases surface area

■ Rich blood supply – Dense capillary network rapidly transports absorbed products
■ Single layer epithelium – Minimises diffusion distance between lumen and blood
■ Lacteals – Absorbs lipids from the intestine into the lymphatic system
■ Intestinal glands – Exocrine pits (crypts of Lieberkuhn) release digestive juices
■ Membrane proteins – Facilitates transport of digested materials into epithelial cells

Mnemonic: MR SLIM
Small Intestine
Small Intestine
Structure of Villus Epithelium
The epithelial lining of villi contains several structural features which optimise its capacity to absorb digested
materials:

Tight Junctions

■ Occluding associations between the plasma membrane of two adjacent cells, creating an impermeable barrier

■ They keep digestive fluids separated from tissues and maintain a concentration gradient by ensuring one-way
movement

Microvilli

■ Microvilli borders significantly increase surface area of the plasma membrane (>100×), allowing for more
absorption to occur

■ The membrane will be embedded with immobilised digestive enzymes and channel proteins to assist in material
uptake
Small Intestine
Structure of Villus Epithelium
The epithelial lining of villi contains several structural features which optimise its capacity to absorb digested materials:

Mitochondria

■ Epithelial cells of intestinal villi will possess large numbers of mitochondria to provide ATP for active transport
mechanisms

■ ATP may be required for primary active transport (against gradient), secondary active transport (co-transport) or
pinocytosis

Pinocytotic Vesicles

■ Pinocytosis (‘cell-drinking’) is the non-specific uptake of fluids and dissolved solutes (a quick way to translocate in
bulk)

■ These materials will be ingested via the breaking and reforming of the membrane and hence contained within a
vesicle
Small Intestine
Cross-Section of Villus Epithelium
Absorption
During absorption, digested food monomers must pass from the lumen into the epithelial lining of the small intestine

■ Tight junctions between epithelial cells occlude any gaps between cells – all monomers must cross the
membrane
■ Different monomers undertake different methods for crossing the apical and basolateral membranes
Absorption
Membrane Transport Mechanisms

Secondary Active Transport

■ A transport protein couples the active translocation of one molecule to the passive movement of another
(co-transport)
■ Glucose and amino acids are co-transported across the epithelial membrane by the active translocation
of sodium ions (Na+)

Facilitated Diffusion

■ Channel proteins help hydrophilic food molecules pass through the hydrophobic portion of the plasma
membrane
■ Channel proteins are often situated near specific membrane-bound enzymes (creates a localised
concentration gradient)
■ Certain monosaccharides (e.g. fructose), vitamins and some minerals are transported by facilitated
diffusion
Absorption
Osmosis

■ Water molecules will diffuse across the membrane in response to the movement of ions and hydrophilic
monomers (solutes)
■ The absorption of water and dissolved ions occurs in both the small and large intestine

Simple Diffusion

■ Hydrophobic materials (e.g. lipids) may freely pass through the hydrophobic portion of the plasma
membrane
■ Once absorbed, lipids will often pass first into the lacteals rather than being transported via the blood
Absorption
Bulk Transport

Endocytosis

■ Endocytosis involves the invagination of the plasma membrane to create an internal vesicle containing extracellular
material

■ Vesicle formation requires the breaking and reforming of the phospholipid bilayer and hence is an energy-
dependent process

■ In the intestines, vesicles commonly form around fluid containing dissolved materials (pinocytosis – cell ‘drinking’)

■ Pinocytosis allows materials to be ingested en masse and hence takes less time than shuttling via membrane
proteins
Absorption
Bulk Transport

Endocytosis
Absorption - Summary
Starch Digestion
Application: Processes occurring in the small intestine that result in the digestion of starch and transport of the products
of digestion to the liver

Starch is a polysaccharide composed of glucose monomers and accounts for ~ 60% of the carbohydrates consumed by
humans
■ Starch can exist in one of two forms – linear chains (amylose) or branched chains (amylopectin)

The digestion of starch is initiated by salivary amylase in the mouth and continued by pancreatic amylase in the
intestines
■ Starch digestion by amylase does not occur in the stomach as the pH is unsuitable for amylase activity (optimal pH
~ 7)

Amylase digests amylose into maltose subunits (disaccharide) and digests amylopectin into branched chains called
dextrins
■ Both maltose and dextrin are digested by enzymes (maltase) which are fixed to the epithelial lining of the small
intestine
■ The hydrolysis of maltose / dextrin results in the formation of glucose monomers

Glucose can be hydrolysed to produce ATP (cell respiration) or stored in animals as the polysaccharide glycogen
■ Glucose monomers can also be generated from the breakdown of disaccharides (such as lactose and sucrose)
Starch Digestion
Application: Processes occurring in the small intestine that result in the digestion of starch and transport of the products
of digestion to the liver
Starch Digestion
Application: Processes occurring in the small intestine that result in the digestion of starch and transport of the products
of digestion to the liver

Role of Pancreas

The pancreas serves two functions in the breakdown of starch:

■ It produces the enzyme amylase which is released from exocrine glands (acinar cells) into the intestinal tract

■ It produces the hormones insulin and glucagon which are released from endocrine glands (islets of Langerhans) into
the blood

The hormones insulin and glucagon regulate the concentration of glucose in the bloodstream (controls availability to
cells)

■ Insulin lowers blood glucose levels by increasing glycogen synthesis and storage in the liver and adipose tissues

■ Glucagon increases blood glucose levels by limiting the synthesis and storage of glycogen by the liver and adipose
tissues
Starch Digestion
Application: Processes occurring in the small intestine that result in the digestion of starch and transport of the products
of digestion to the liver

Role of Pancreas
 Lipid Digestion

Lipids are hydrophobic (water ‘hating’) and hence tend to be insoluble within the aqueous environments of
the body

■ Being hydrophobic, lipids will group together (coalesce) to form large globules of fats

The enzyme responsible for lipid digestion (lipase) is generally water soluble and is only hydrophobic at the
active site

■ This means lipase can only bind to lipid globules at the lipid-water interface (i.e. the outer extremity of the
globule)

■ As the interior of the fat globule is inaccessible to lipase, digestion of lipids in this form is normally very
slow
Lipid Digestion
Bile is a watery fluid that contains bile salts and pigments (bilirubin) – it is made by the liver and released from
the gall bladder

■ Bile salt molecules have both a hydrophobic surface and a hydrophilic surface
■ The hydrophobic end interacts with the lipid while the hydrophilic end faces out and prevents lipids from
coalescing
■ This divides the fat globule into smaller droplets (emulsification), increasing the total surface area available
for enzyme activity
Modelling Digestion

Most food is solid and in the form of large complex molecules which are insoluble and chemically inert
(not readily usable)

The process of digestion therefore performs two key functions:

■ It breaks down insoluble molecules into smaller subunits which can be readily absorbed into body
tissues

■ It breaks down inert molecules into usable subunits which can be assimilated by cells and
reassembled into new products
Modelling Digestion
A core function of the digestive system is to break down large molecules into smaller subunits that can be
absorbed by cells

■ Cell membranes are impermeable to large molecules (polypeptides, polysaccharides) unless transport is
facilitated by proteins

The size-specific permeability of cell membranes can be modelled using dialysis tubing (Visking tubing)

■ Dialysis tubing contains pores typically ranging from 1 - 10 nm in diameter and is semi-permeable
according to molecular size

■ Large molecules such as starch cannot pass through the tubing, however smaller molecules (such as
maltose) can cross

■ Unlike the membranes of living cells, dialysis tubing is not selectively permeable based on charge (ions
can freely cross)
Modelling Digestion
Dialysis Tubing
Digestion Experiments
Digestive enzymes like amylase can break down impermeable polymers (starch) into permeable subunits (maltose)

■ Dialysis tubing is impermeable to amylase and starch, but permeable to maltose (and water)

Experiment 1: Measuring Meniscus Levels

■ A length of dialysis tubing is attached to a thistle funnel and filled with starch solution (control condition)
■ A second length of tubing is attached to a thistle funnel and filled with starch and amylase solution (experimental condition)
■ Both apparatuses are placed in a beaker filled with water
■ Over time, water will move into the tubing via osmosis (towards the solute) causing the meniscus level to rise
■ The tube with amylase will have less solute (as starch is digested) and hence the meniscus level should not rise as much
Digestion Experiments
Digestive enzymes like amylase can break down impermeable polymers (starch) into permeable subunits (maltose)

■ Dialysis tubing is impermeable to amylase and starch, but permeable to maltose (and water)

Experiment 2: Measuring Maltose Diffusion

■ A length of dialysis tubing is filled with starch solution and suspended in a beaker of water (control condition)
■ A second length of tubing is filled with starch and amylase solution and suspended in a beaker of water (experimental
condition)
■ The amylase will digest the starch into maltose, which is small enough to diffuse out of the tubing and into the beaker
■ The presence of maltose can be detected using Benedict’s reagent or glucose indicator strips
Digestion Experiments
Lipid Absorption
Lipids within the digestive system will tend to hydrophobically aggregate to form large fat globules

■ Bile salts, secreted from the gall bladder, emulsify these fat globules and break them up into smaller
droplets
■ Hydrolytic enzymes called lipases then digest the fats into their component parts

When the fatty acids are absorbed into the epithelial cells of the intestinal lining, they are combined to form
triglycerides

■ The triglycerides are combined with proteins inside the Golgi apparatus to form chylomicrons
■ Chylomicrons are released from the epithelial cells and are transported via the lacteals to the liver

While in the liver, chylomicrons may be modified to form a variety of lipoproteins

■ Low density lipoproteins will transport lipids via the bloodstream to cells
■ High density lipoproteins will scavenge excess lipids from the bloodstream and tissues and return them
to the liver
Lipid Absorption