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SYSTEM
ANATOMY AND
PHYSIOLOGY
There are 206 bones in the human body, divided
into:
Long bones (femur)
Short bones (metacarpals)
Irregular bones (vertebrae)
Flat bones (sternum, iliac crest)
Functions of the skeletal system
Osteogenesis or bone formation begins long after
birth; ossification is the process where the bone
matrix is formed and hard mineral crystals composed
of calcium and phosphorus are bound to the collagen
fibers.
Bone maintenance
During childhood, bones grow and form by modeling
and by early adulthood, remodeling is the primary
process that occurs which maintains bone structure
and function through simultaneous resorption and
osteogenesis which results to complete skeletal
turnover every 10 years.
Bone healing
Healing of fractures occurs through a combination of
intramembraneous and endochondrial ossification
process.
Three types of muscles exist in the body
Skeletal Muscles (voluntary and striated)
Cardiac Muscles (involuntary and striated)
Smooth/Visceral Muscles (Involuntary and non
striated)
Functions of the bones
Locomotion
Protection
Support and lever
Hematopoiesis
Mineral deposition
Support the body and anchor muscles
Two types of bones
Compact bone
Spongy bone
Inside bones is a central shaft (fat)
Bone matrices contain the bone’s proteins and
minerals.
Biochemical Characteristics of Bone (Wolff’s
Law)
Bone is laid down where needed and resorbed where
not needed.
Shape of bone reflects its function
Tennis arm of pro tennis players have cortical
thickness 35% greater than contralateral arm.
Osteoclasts resorb or takeup bone
Osteoblasts lay down new bone
PHYSICAL ASSESSMENT
Extent of assessment depends of the patient’s
physical complaints, health history and physical
complaints, health history and physical clues
that warrant further exploration.
Posture normal curvature of the spine is convex
through the thoracic and concave through the
cervical and lumbar portions.
Gait assess gait for smoothness and rhythm.
Bone integrity assess for deformities;
alignment and symmetrical parts of the body are
compared.
Joint function articular system is evaluated by
noting range of motion (active or passive)
measured by goniometer; evaluate for deformity;
stability and nodular formation.
Muscle strength and size assess muscular
strength and coordination; size of individual
muscles and ability to change position;
measurement of size, which may increase due to
exercise, edema or bleeding into the muscle and
may decrease due to atrophy.
Neurovascular status perform frequent
neurovascular assessments because of risk for
tissue and nerve damage.
DIAGNOSTIC EVALUATION
Imaging Procedures
Xray studies determine bone density, texture,
erosion and changes in bone relationships.
Ct scan shows in detail a specific plane involved
bone and reveal tumors of the soft or injuries to
tendon and ligaments.
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) noninvasive
procedures that uses magnetic fields, radiowaves and
computers to demonstrate abnormalities like tumors.
Arthrography identifies acute or chronic tears of
the joint capsule or supporting ligaments of the knee,
shoulder, ankle, hip or wrist.
Bone densitometry used to estimate bone
mineral density (BMD) through the use of xrays
or ultrasound. Dual energy xray absorptiometry
(DEXA) determine bone density at the wrist, hip,
or spine to estimate the extent of osteoporosis
and to monitor response to treatment.
Bone scan performed to detect metastatic and
primary bone tumors, osteomyelitis, certain
fractures, and aseptic necrosis by injecting
through IV a bone seeking radioscope after which
a scan is performed 2 to 3 hours after.
Endoscopic studies (arthroscopy) a
procedure that allow direct visualization of a
joint to diagnose joint disorders.
Other Studies
Arthrocentesis joint aspiration carried out to
obtain synovial fluid for purposes of examination or
pain relief due to effusion.
Electromyography (EMG) provides information
about the electrical potential of the muscles and
nerves; performed to evaluate muscle weakness, pain
and disability.
Biopsy determines the structure and composition of
the bone marrow, bone, muscle or synovium and to
help diagnose specific disease.
MUSCULOSKELETAL CARE
MODALITIES
Patient in a Cast
Cast is a rigid external immobilizing device that
is molded to the contours of the body; used
specifically to immobilize a reduced fracture; to
correct a deformity; to apply uniform pressure to
support and stabilize weakened joints.
Types
Short arm cast
Long arm cast
Long leg cast
Waking cast
Body cast
Shoulder spica cast
Hip spica cast
Interventions for applying casts
Support extremity or body part to be casted
Support cast during hardening/drying with palms of
hands
Leave cast uncovered and exposed to air
Encourage exercise of joints not casted (finger
exercises)
Observe for signs of infection like purulent drainage
Monitor circulation, motion sensation (CMS) of the
affected extremity
Complications
Compartment Syndrome occurs with
increased tissue pressure within a limited space
that compromises the circulation and function of
the tissue; to relieve pressure; cast must be
bivalve (cut in half longitudinally) while
maintain alignment or a fasciotomy to relieve
pressure within the muscle compartment.
Pressure ulcers initially reported as pain and
tightness in the area.
Disuse syndrome patient needs to learn to
tense or contract muscles which reduce muscle
atrophy and maintain muscle strength.
Fat embolism very common complication in
long bone fractures.
Patient with splints and braces
Contoured splints of plaster or pliable thermoplastic
materials maybe used for swelling and skin care.
Splints must be padded to prevent pressure, skin
abrasion and skin breakdown.
Braces (orthosis) are used to provide support, control
movement, and prevent additional injury; for long
term use.
Patient with external fixator
Used to manage open fractures with soft tissue
damage.
Provide stable support for severe comminuted
(crushed or splintered) fractures while permitting
active treatment of damage soft tissues.
Neurovascular status is monitored every 2 to 4 hours
and assesses pin sites for redness, drainage,
tenderness, pain and loosening of the pin.
Serous drainage form pin sites are expected.
Patient in traction
Application of a pulling force to a body part to
minimize muscle spasms, to reduce, align and
immobilize fractures; to increase space between
two opposing fractures.
Principles
Traction must be continuous to be effective in reducing
and immobilizing fractures.
Skeletal traction is never interrupted.
Weights are not removed until intermittent traction is
prescribed.
Any factor that might reduce the effective pull or alter
its resultant line of pull must be eliminated.
Patient must be in body alignment in the center of bed.
Rope must be uninterrupted.
Weights must be hang freely and not rest in bed or floor.
Knots in the rope or the foot plate must not touch the
pulley or foot of the bed.
Skin traction
Used to control muscle spasm and to immobilize
an area before surgery.
Types (for adults)
Buck’s Extension traction skin traction in the
lower leg; used to immobilize fractures of the
proximal femur before surgical fixation.
Cervical Head Halter used to treat neck pain.
Pelvic Traction used to treat back pain.
Complications
Skin breakdown results from irritation
caused by contact of skin with the tape or foam
and shearing forces.
Nerve damage result from pressure on the
peripheral nerves.
Circulatory impairment manifested by cold
skin temperature, decreased peripheral pulses,
slow capillary refill time, and bluish skin.
Skeletal traction
Applied directly to the bone to treat fractures of
femur, tibia and cervical spine by use of metal
pin or wire (Steinmann pin, Kirshcher wire)
Intervention for care pin
Protected elbows and heels to prevent skin
breakdown.
Assess pressure pints for redness.
Assess neurovascular status every 4 hours.
Encourage flexionextension exercises.
Site is covered with sterile dressing to prevent
development of osteomyelitis.
Chlorhexetidine solution is recommended as the most
effective cleansing solution.
Inspect pin sites daily; normal reaction includes
redness, warmth and serous drainage for 72 hours.
Crushing at pin site is normal and should remain
undisturbed.
Patient undergoing surgery
Frequent surgical procedures include ORIF
(open reduction with internal fixation) and closed
reduction with internal fixation; amputation; bone
graft; tendon transfer.
Joint surgery is the most frequently performed
orthopedic surgeries which includes excision and
repair, arthroplasty (replacement of all or part of
the joint surface) and arthodesis (immobilizing
fusion of a joint); fasciotomy (incision and
diversion of the muscle fascia) and tendon transfer
(movement of tendon insertion to improve
function).
Total Hip replacement replacement of a severely
damaged hip with artificial joint; indications include
arthritis, femoral neck fractures, failure of previous
reconstructive surgeries and conditions resulting from CHD.
Complications: dislocation of hip prosthesis, excessive
wound drainage, thromboembolism, infection and heel
pressure ulcer.
To prevent dislocation:
+ Keep knees apart at all times
+ Put pillows between legs when sleeping
+ Never cross legs when seated
+ Avoid bending forward when seated in a chair or to
pick up an object.
+ Affected leg should not turn inward
Total Knees Replacement considered for patients
who have severe pain and functional disabilities
related to destruction of join surfaces by arthritis or
bleeding into joint.
Intervention:
+ Postoperatively, cover with compression
bandage; may apply ice to control edema and
bleeding.
+ Wound suction drainage is applied; drainage
ranges from 200 to 400 ml on the first 24 hours then
less than 25 ml on the succeeding day.
+ Continuous passive motion (CPM) device is used
to increase circulation and range or motion joints.
Amputations removal of a body part usually an
extremity and maybe used to relieve symptoms or
to improve functions.
Performed at the most distal point that will heal
successfully determined by circulation in the body
part to be amputated and functional usefulness.
Level of Amputation:
+ Syme amputation modified ankle
disarticulation amputation.
+ Below knee amputation (BKA)
+ Above knee amputation (AKA)
+ Staged amputation
Complications:
+ Hemorrhage due to loosened suture
+ Infection if traumatic wound is usually
contaminated
+ Phantom limb syndrome caused by the
severing of peripheral nerves but usually resolves
within one year.
+ Joint contracture caused by positioning and
protective flexion withdrawal pattern associated
with pain and muscle imbalance.
Management
+ Closed rigid dressing
+ Used to provide uniform compression; to
support soft tissue; to control pain and prevent
joint contractures.
+ Plaster cast is fitted with temporary
prosthetic extension
+ Soft dressing with or without compression
maybe used in the presence of significant wound
drainage.
MUSCULOSKELETAL
DISORDERS
COMMON UPPER EXTREMITY
PROBLEMS
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome entrapment
neuropathy that occurs due to compression of the
median nerve commonly caused by repetitive
hand and wrist movement.
Treatment is based on the cause; wrist splints,
avoidance of repetitive flexion of the wrist,
NSAIDS and carpal canal cortisone injections.
Traditional open nerve release or endoscopic
laser surgery.
Dupuytren’s Disease results to slow
progressive contracture of the palmar fascia
called Dupuytrens’ Contracture which causes
flexion of the fourth and the fifth fingers caused
by inherited autosomal dominant occurring
commonly in adult Scandinavian or Celtic origin
older than 50 years.
Finger stretching exercises are advised.
Palmar fasciotomy are done to improve
function.
COMMON FOOT PROBLEM
Pes Cavus Clawfoot; abnormally high arch and
fixed equines deformity of the forefoot.
Hallux Valgus Bunion, a deformity where the
great toe deviates laterally with marked
prominence of the medial aspect of the first
metatarsophalangeal joint.
Flatfoot Pes planus; common disorder where
the longitudinal arch of the foot is diminished
caused by congenital abnormalities; bone and
ligament injury; poorly fitted shoes; excessive
weight; muscle fatigue or arthritis.
METABOLIC DISORDERS
Osteoporosis
Defined as a systematic skeletal disorder characterized
by compromised bone strength predisposing to an
increased risk of fracture.
Osteopenia is defined as low bone mineral density
(BMD) compared to that expected for the person’s gender
and age.
Reduction in bone density and change in bone structure
which increases susceptibility to fracture.
Multiple compression fracture results of skeletal
deformity; collapse of the vertebrae results to
progressive kyphosis known as Dowager’s hump with
associated loss of height; protruding abdomen;
pulmonary insufficiency and fatigue.
Risk factors:
Female, Asians or Hispanics
Increased age, menopausal
Low weight and BMI
Family history
Diet low in calcium and Vitamin D
Smoking, caffeine and alcohol
Lack of exercise
Category
Normal a value for BMD or bone mineral content
(BMC) that is not more than 1 standard deviation (SD)
below the young adult mean.
Low bone mass (osteopenia) a value for BMD or
BMC that lies between 1.0 and 2.5 SD below the young
adult mean.
Osteoporosis a value for BMD or BMC that is more
than 2.5 SD below the young the young adult mean.
Severe (established) osteoporosis a value for
BMD or BMC more than 2.5 SD below the young adult
mean value and the presence of one or more fragility
fractures.
Assessment
Dual energy xray absorptiometry (DEXA)
provides information about bone mineral density
(BMD) at the spine and hip.
BMD useful in identifying osteopenic and
osteoporotic bone.
Laboratory serum calcium, serum phosphate;
serum alkaline phosphate; ESR; hematocrit and
xray studies to rule out other possible causes.
Management
Diet high calcium and vitamin D which play a
major role in calcium absorption and bone
metabolism.
Exercises regular weight bearing exercises
such as walking and running to promote bone
formation.
Reduction of the risk by cessation of smoking
and decreasing alcohol intake.
Pharmacologic therapy
+ Selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs)
raloxifene (Evista) preserve BMD without estrogenic effects on
the uterus.
+ Biphosphates alendronate (Fosamax), risedronate
(Actonel), ibandronate (Boniva) reduce spine and hip fractures
associated with osteoporosis by increasing bone mass and
decreasing bone loss by inhibiting osteoclast function.
+ Calcitonin (Miacalcin) directly inhibits osteoclast
reducing bone loss and increasing BMD, administered by nasal
spray or parentally.
+ Teriparatide (Forteo), a recombinant PTH,
subcutaneously administered once a day stimulates
osteoblasts to build bone matrix and facilitates overall calcium
absorption.
PAGET’S DISEASE (OSTEITIS
DEFORMANS)
Ostetis Deformans is defined as idiopathic bone
disorder characterized by abnormal and
accelerated bone resorption and formation in one
or more bones; normal bone becomes replaced by
abnormal, structurally weaker bone that is prone
to fractures.
Disorder of localized bone turnover affecting the
skull, femur, vertebrae, tibia, and pelvic bones.
Manifestations
In symptomatic Paget’disease, more common
presenting complaints includes: deep aching bone
pain, skeletal deformity such as barrelshaped
chest, bowing of tibia or femur or kyphosis,
changes in skin temperature, pathologic fracture
through diseased bone and manifestations
related to nerve compression.
Skeletal deformities noted on xray (bowing of
femur and tibia, skull enlargement, pelvic bone
deformity)
Assessment
Elevated serum alkaline phosphatase
Urinary hydroxyproline erection which reflects
increased osteoblastic activity.
Xray confirms Paget’s disease which shows
characteristic mosaic pattern.
Management
Pain is responsive to NSAID’s such as Ibuprofen
and newer COX2 inhibitors.
Walking aids, shoe lifts and physical therapy for
gait problems
Weight control
Pharmacologic therapy
Calcitonin retards bone resorption
Biphosphates which includes pamidronate
(Aredia), alendronate (Fosamax), risedronate
(Actonel), etidronate (Didronel) and tiludronate
(Skelid).
Plicamycin (mithracin) cytotoxic antibiotics
maybe used to control the disease.
INFECTIOUS DISORDERS
Osteomyelitis
Infection of the bone spread by extension, direct
bone contamination or hematogenous spread.
70 to 80 % are caused by Staphylococcus
aureus.
May result to bone abscess cavity which contains
dead bone tissue called sequestrum which does
not easily liquefy and drain.
New bone growth forms called involucrum
which surrounds the sequestrum.
Manifestations
Systemic symptoms of chills, high fever, rapid
pulse, general malaise
Infected area becomes painful swollen and
tender with constant pulsating pain.
With chronic osteomyelitis, it presents with
continuously draining sinus or recurrent periods
of pain, inflammation, swelling and drainage.
Assessment
Xray soft tissue swelling
Leukocytosis and elevated ESR
Wound and blood cultures
Bone scan
Management
Pharmacologic therapy
+ IV antibiotic round the clock for 3 to 6
weeks.
Surgical management
+ Surgical debridement
+ Sequestrectomy removal of involucrum
(new bone growth) to remove the sequestrum
(necrotic tissue) is performed
SEPTIC ARTHRITIS OR PYOGENIC
ARTHRITIS
Can contribute to the development of an infected
joint.
Most adult joint infection are caused by
staphylococcus aureus, followed by streptococcus
and gonococci.
Manifestations
Warm, painful swollen joint with decreased
range of motion
Systemic chills, fever and leukocytosis
Assessment
Aspiration, examination and culture of the
synovial fluid.
CT Scan and MRI may reveal damage to the
joint lining.
Radioscope scanning
Management
Broad spectrum IV antibiotics should be
started promptly and changed to organism
specific antibiotics after culture is available.
Joint aspiration to promote comfort and
decrease joint destruction caused by action of
proteolytic enzymes in the purulent fluid.
Analgesics like codeine maybe given to relieve
pain and limit joint damage.
SPINAL COLUMN DEFORMITIES
Scoliosis
Lateral curvature of the spine in any area cervical,
thoracic, thoracolumbar or lumbar.
Types:
Structural curvature does not correct itself on
focused bending against the curvature and vertebral
rotation can be demonstrated.
Nonstructural curvature is easily corrected on forced
bending or in the supine position. Rotation of vertebral
bodies is not demonstrated.
Idiopathic scoliosis is the most common form,
appearing in growing children with no other apparent
health problems which is most often seen in
preadolescents and adolescents.
Manifestations
Diagnosis is confirmed by upright PA and
lateral radiographs that reveal a curvature of 10
degrees or more.
Management
Nonsurgical treatments include observation,
brace and exercise.
Spinal fusion is the ultimate goal in many cases
attaching adjacent vertebrae to each other with a
bone graft to prohibit motion between them.
Complications post surgery
Neurologic compromise
Infection
Respiratory problems
Spinal fluid leakage
Phlebitis
Excessive blood loss
Implant problems
Pseudoarthritis
MUSCULOSKELTAL TRAUMA
Contusions, Strains and Sprains
Contusion soft tissue injury produced by blunt force
such as a blow, kick, or fall; most resolve in 1 to 2
weeks.
Strain or pulled muscle injury to a
musculotendinous unit caused by overuse,
overstretching or excessive stress and graded along
continuum based on post injury symptoms and loss of
function and reflect the degree of injury.
Sprain injury to the ligaments an supporting
muscle fibers that surround a joint caused by
wrenching or twisting motion.
Fractures
Break in the continuity of the bone and is defined
according to its type and extent.
Caused by direct blow, crushing forces, sudden
twisting motion and extreme muscle contraction.
Types of Fractures
Complete fracture
Incomplete fracture
Comminuted fracture
Closed simple fracture
Open (compound or complex) fracture
Factors that affect fracture healing
Favorable
+ Location good blood supply at bone ends
and flat bones
+ Minimal damage to soft tissue
+ Anatomic reduction possible
+ Effective mobilization
+ Weightbearing on long bones
Unfavorable
+ Fragments widely spread
+ Fragment distracted by traction
+ Severely comminuted fracture
+ Severe damage to soft tissue
+ Bone loss from injury or surgical excision
+ Motion/rotation at fracture site as a result of
inadequate fixation
+ Infection
+ Impaired blood supply to one or more bone
fragments
+ Location: decreased blood supply and midshaft
+ Health behaviors such as smoking, alcohol use
Manifestations
Deformity maybe caused by swelling form local
hemorrhage and muscle spasm can cause limb
shortening, a rotational deformity or angulation.
Swelling edema appears quickly as a result of
accumulation of serous fluid at fracture site and
extravasation of blood
Bruising (ecchymosis) bruising results from
subcutaneous bleeding
Pain pain always accompany fracture which is
continuous, increasing in severity until
immobilization.
Tenderness caused by underlying injuries.
Loss of function caused by pain or loss of lever
arm function in affected extremity; paralysis maybe
caused by nerve damage.
Abnormal mobility and crepitus caused by
motion in the middle of a bone or by fragments
rubbing together to create grating sensation or
sounds.
Neurovascular changes neurovascular injury
results from damage to peripheral nerves or
associated vascular structures; complaints usually
include numbness and tingling with no palpable
pulse distal to the fracture.
Shock frank or occult hemorrhage result to shock.
Emergency Management
Primary assessment focuses on airway
management, bleeding and manifestations of
shock.
Neurologic condition and vital signs are
monitored.
NPO in case of surgery is indicated.
Obtain client’s history and examine injured
area.
Medical Management
Reduction“setting” the bone refers to restoration of
the fracture fragments to anatomic alignment and
rotation
+ Physician has to reduce a fracture as soon as
possible to prevent loss of elasticity form the tissues
through infiltration by edema or hemorrhage.
+ Either closed or open reduction maybe used
depending on the nature of the fracture.
Immobilization after reduction, the bone fragments
must be immobilized or held in correct position and
alignment until union occurs; maybe accomplished by
internal or external fixation.
Nursing Interventions
With Closed Fractures
+ Encourage to return to usual activities as
soon as possible
+ Maintain health of unaffected muscles and
increase the strength through exercise.
+ Teach patients on use of assistive devices
+ Plans to modify home environment as
necessary
+ Patient teaching on self care, medications
monitor for potential complication
With open fractures
+ Prevention of wound infection
+ Administer tetanus prophylaxis
+ Serial irrigation and debridement in the OR
+ IV antibiotics to prevent or treat infections
+ Prompt and thorough wound irrigation and
debridement
+ Fracture is reduced and stabilized by
external fixation
+ Delay in primary wound closure
+ Elevation of extremity to minimize edema
Early Complications
Shock hypovolemic shock results from
hemorrhage and loss of intravascular volume into
the interstitial space.
Fat embolism syndrome major cause of delayed recovery
and mortality after fracture due to release of fat globules from
the bone marrow into the venous circulation after fracture of long
bones.
+ Onset of symptoms is rapid usually 24 to 72 hours
+ Presenting features include hypoxia; tachypnea;
tachycardia; and pyrexia with respiratory distress symptoms.
+ Cerebral disturbances are due to hypoxia and lodging of fat
emboli in the brain.
+ Management and prevention includes immediate
immobilization; minimal fracture manipulation; adequate
support during turning and positioning and maintenance of fluid
and electrolyte imbalance.
+ Objectives of management are to support respiratory
system; to prevent respiratory failure and to correct homeostatic
disturbances
Compartment Syndrome condition of
compromised circulation related to progressively
increased pressure in a confined space.
+ Caused by anything that decrease the
compartment size including external compression
forces like tight cast or bleeding and edema
+ Primary treatment is relief of the source of
pressure done by removal of constricting bandage
or cast to be bivalved.
Cast syndrome or superior mesenteric
artery syndrome which occurs in body spica
cast.
+ Can develop to weeks after immobilization
Late Complications
Joint stiffness or posttraumatic arthritis
may occur after prolonged immobilization and
lead to joint contracture or muscle atrophy.
+ Perform active and passive range of motion
+ Post traumatic arthritis is influenced by the
severity of the initial injury and success of bone
reduction
+ May give acetaminophen or NSAIDS to
decrease joint discomfort
Avascular necrosis occurs primarily in
fractures proximal to the femoral head and
results from local circulatory compromise.
+ Xray demonstrates collapse of the femoral
head and pain occurs months to years after
fracture repair.
+ Requires replacement of the femoral head
with prosthesis
Malunion, nonunion and delayed union
+ Delayed union occurs when healing does not
occur at a normal rate for the location and type of
fracture
+ Nonunion occurs from failure of the ends of
a fractured bone to unite
+ Malunion results from failure of the ends
of a fractured bone to unite in normal alignment.
+ Management
< For nonunion, treatment is internal
fixation to stabilize bone fragments and ensure
bone contact.
< Bone grafts provides for osteogenesis or
bone formation which occurs after
transplantation of bone containing osteoblasts.
Complex regional pain syndrome (CRPS)
is a painful sympathetic nervous system disorder
that occurs in the upper extremity after trauma.
+ Manifestations severe burning pain, local
edema and hyperesthesia, stiffness, discoloration,
vasomotor skin changes.
+ Management
< Elevation of the extremity after injury or
surgery
< Immobilization device that allows
greater ROM and functional use
< Early effective pain relief of controlled
with anesthetics, analgesics or IV biphosphonate
pamidronate (Aredia)
< Avoid use of affected extremity for blood
pressure measurements and venipunctures.
END…