(BEF45203) Chapter 2 - Electrical Breakdown in Dielectric

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Electrical Breakdown In
Dielectric
2.1 Physic of Dielectric Materials
2.2 Breakdown in Gaseous Dielectrics
2.3 Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics
2.4 Breakdown in Solid Dielectrics
Physic of Dielectric Materials
What is dielectric? What is insulator?
Answer at www.menti.com
1
What is Dielectrics?
called as “electrical
insulating materials”
Materials in which electrostatic fields

can remain almost indefinitely.
Materials that offer a very high resistance
to the passage of direct current.
The material can be as formed of
gaseous, solid and liquid.
2
The Purpose of Dielectric

To control the flow of current between two conductors,
or between a conductor and its ill-defined surroundings.
Engineering dielectrics can be found everywhere ; but the desired

application features of dielectric materials are often very similar.
However the ‘non-electrical properties required’ often

dominates the choice of materials. For example:
gases insulation inside a circuit breaker,
liquid/oil inside a power transformer,
polymer composites for insulator core;
3
Elements of Dielectrics
Lower thermal plays an important roles in
conductivity separating the electrical
potential object with the
High dielectric earthed object (indoor and
strength material outdoor insulators).
Use as a medium in insulating the
electrodes (e.g. papers insulating
To prevent breakdown winding transformers, PVC in
cable).
4
Dielectrics as the Choice of Materials
Liquid
Oil Immersed
Transformer oils transformer Papers insulating winding coils
5a
Gas
ABB’s 550kV Indoor SF6 Gas Insulator

Switchgear for Three Gorges Project in
Outdoor SF6 Circuit China
Breakers
5b
Solid
Porcelain insulator
Power cable
Polymeric Insulators Glass insulator
5c
Characteristics and Examples
Characteristics Examples
Data logger cable insulation in oil well application (e.g.
Chemical Stability
PTFE, PEEK)
Thermal Resilience Power electronics (e.g. silica, ceramics)
Low Density Areal system (e.g. blown polyethylene)
Transformers (e.g. oils to allowing convection,
Thermal Conductivity
ceramics)
Mechanical Strength HV insulators ( e.g. composites, ceramics, glass)
Processibility Cables and housing (e.g. polymers, thermosets)
Power cable insulation (e.g. PVC, LLDPE, minerals as
Cost
fillers)
Low Smoke Emission Plenum cables (e.g. compounded polymers with ATH)
6
Problems with Dielectrics
RECALL …
Purpose of dielectric : to control the flow of current
between two conductors …..
all substances may be placed
in one of two categories
Insulator
a substance in which is
practically impossible to cause Conductor
any current to flow. a substance in which a certain
In this case, all negative charge number of electrons can be
(i.e. electrons) are firmly easily made free from their
attached to their corresponding associated positive charges, and
positive charges. No net flow of made to move under influence
charges can takes place in of electric potential difference.
insulators.
7
Problems with Dielectrics
However …
under certain conditions free electrons and positive charges can
also be made available in an insulating materials, which then
starts behaving like conductor. Such transition is known as the
breakdown of insulator.
The level of breakdown process of

the materials may be influenced by
Thus, there are no perfect
mechanisms such as electrical fields,
insulator (also conductor).
chemistry/physic bonding of the
materials, stress, temperature, etc.
8
Breakdown in Dielectrics
Breakdown in Gaseous Dielectrics
Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics
Breakdown of Solid Dielectrics
9
Ionization

Townsend’s Mechanism
Streamer theory
Paschen’s Law
Electron
10
Overview on gases failure

 The gasses we met are generally excellent insulators. Air is
also the combination gasses and is used to separating the
potential electrodes.
 However, at high fields, the discharge and breakdown may
also takes place.
Why?
This energy is taken from
high fields charge particle can gain energy the field (i.e. electrical
in their ‘mean free path’ and cause further stress) and increasing
number of carriers (ions
ionisation particle ionise) by impact.
movements) are created.
11
Overview on gases failure cont.

 In an earlier stage for ion movements, such a process must
begin with a first free charge particle which normally be an
electrons.
Why?
Electron  Since electrons have a longer mean free

path than ions so it can absorbs more
energy before collisions, and likely to
Nucleus create further ionisation process.
 The free charge particle (i.e. electrons)
might come from cosmic radiation, or
emission from a cathode (charge).
12
Ionization Processes
A physical process of converting an atom or molecule into an
ion by adding or removing charged particles such as
electrons or other ions.
 The process works slightly different depending on
whether an ion with a positive or negative charge is being
produced.
Positively-charged ion Negatively-charged ion
13
Ionization Processes cont.

Positively-charged ion
Negatively-charged ion
A positively-charged ion is
produced when an electron A negatively-charged ions is
bonded to an atom @ molecule produced when free electron
absorbs enough energy to collides with an atom and its
escape from the electrical subsequently caught inside the
potential barrier that originally electric potential barrier,
confined it, thus breaking the releasing any excess energy.
bond and freeing to move.
 It is necessary that the energy of the electron exceeds the energy

difference of the potential barrier (bond) it is trying to pass.
14

 The amount of energy required is called the ionisation
energy, Wi.
 Usually, it is customary to measure the Wi with the help of
potential Vi, through which an electron has been accelerated
in an electric field in order to acquire energy equal to the
ionisation energy.
 Therefore, Wi generally expressed in electron volt (eV) and
known as ionisation potential.
15

 The ionization process is governed by the various physical
conditions of gases.
 When HV is applied between two electrodes, the gas

becomes conductor and an electrical breakdown occurs.
 Types of processes:
a) ionization by collision,
b) photo-ionization, and
c) secondary ionization (on the electrode surface).
16
a) Ionization by Collision
The process of liberating an electron from a gas molecule
with the simultaneous production of positive ion.
Refer: High Voltage Engineering Second Edition by M. S. Naidu dan V Kamaraju
A free electron collides with a neutral gas molecule

and generates new electron and positive ion.
Please refer Dr Rie Slides for further information
17
Ionization Processes : Step Ionisation

 In some cases, the so called “step ionisation” may takes
place due to collision of a neutral atom or molecule with
electron having a energy less than the ionisation energy.
 The following processes can bring about the step ionisation.

a) An electron having energy less than the ionising energy may
bring a neutral atom to an excited state by collision.
Immediately after this, the excited atom may collide with
another electron which supplies the rest of ionising energy.
b) Collision of two excited atoms may result ionisation of one
atom with the help of energy released by other excited atom,
which then return to its normal state.
18
b) Photo-ionization
Also known as ionisation by radiation
The process involves the interaction

of radiation with matter.
 Photo-ionisation occurs when the amount of radiation
Several Process
energy absorbed by an atom or molecule exceeds its

ionisation potential.
a) excitation of the atom to a higher energy state

b) continuous absorption by direct excitation of the
atom or dissociation of diatomic molecule or
direct ionisation etc.
19
c) Secondary ionization
Please refer Dr Rie Slides for
further information. This is
 Secondary electrons are produced. the simplification only.
 Electron emission due to positive ion impact : a positive ion

approaching cathode can cause emission of electrons from
the cathode.
 Electron emission due to photons : electron can escape from
a metal if there is enough energy to overcome the surface
potential barrier.
 Electron emission due to metastable and neutral atoms :
electrons can be ejected from the metal surface by the
impact of excited (metastable) atoms.
20
Ionization Streamer theory

Paschen’s Law
Townsend’s mechanism is based upon:
 Ionisation collision in the gas
 Ionisation collision on the surface of the
cathode
 Photo ionisation
Electron
21
Basic
1. Anode: +ve polarity
2. Cathode: -ve polarity
3. Positively charge ions
(cations) moves towards
cathode
4. Negatively charged ions
(anions) moves toward
anode
Townsend test setup for study of pre-
breakdown currents
22
23
 Townsend’s original experiment - involved measurement of
the current growth at the uniform field gap with static
voltage applied. to ensure a uniform field is applied
to the electrodes system
 The test setup comprised with a parallel plate electrode

system enclosed in a glass chamber containing a gas at a low
pressure.
 An Ultra-Violet (UV) light was used to irradiate the cathode

surface to emits photoelectrons in the gaseous medium.
24
 A variable source of potential
was connected externally
across the electrodes in
Region III
Region IV
Region II
series with an electrometer
Region I
to measure small leakage
current.
 The measurement results
were plotted as the current-
voltage growth characteristic
such as shown in figure. Current-voltage characteristic as
observed from the Townsend test
25
Townsend’s Process
 Current-voltage characteristic as observed from the
Townsend test - Townsend Process
 The curves obtained based on the Townsend tests in
different gap settings to determine
 the Townsend’s First Coefficient ‘α’ (alpha), and
 the Townsend’s Second Coefficient ‘γ’ (gamma).
 ‘α’ is an average number ionising collision made by one

electron per unit drift in the direction of the field
 ‘γ’ is an average number of secondary electrons produced at
the cathode per ionising collision in the gap.
26
Townsend’s Process: Region I

 From the curves, it is shown that at low
voltages, the current increases linearly
(not steady) with the gap voltage up to a
saturation level (i0), when all electrons
available are conducting.
Region II
Region I
Region
Region
 This i0 can be increased by increasing the
number of electrons available, such as by
III
IV
illuminating the cathodes with UV light
(photo-ionisation).
 In this case, with increasing gap voltage,
more and more emitted photoelectrons
from cathode reach the anode.
 The anode current increases as ‘I = εn’,
where ‘n’ is the number of electrons
reaching the anode per-second.
27
Townsend’s Process: Region II

 From the curves, it is seen that the current
i0 through the gap effectively remains
constant between the voltage level V1 & V2
 In this case, all the photoelectrons emitted
per-second from the cathode reach anode
Region II
Region I
per-second giving the saturation current
Region
Region
‘i0 = εN0’
III
IV
 N is the number of photoelectrons
liberated per-second from N0 cathode
where ε is the charge of an electron = 1.6 x
10-19 coulomb
 Also in this case, no charged particle is yet
produced by ionisation in the gap (current
constant)
28
Townsend’s Process: Region III

 Afterward beyond V2, the current grows
exponentially.
 In this region, Townsend ascribed the
exponential current growth to ionisation
of the gas by electron collision.
Region II
Region I
 As the gap voltage V increases in the gap
Region
Region
d, the electric field stress E increases.
III
IV
 (E=V/d usually defined in kV/cm or
V/cm)
 Hence an electron leaving the cathode
experience more force (εE) & acceleration.
 This result in a higher kinetic energy of
the electron as its travel to anode.
29
Townsend’s Process: Region III

cont.
 Thus the probability of the ionisation
Region II
increases due to the collision of electron
Region I
Region
Region
with uncharged particle.
 The rapid increases of ionisation (electron
III
IV
multiplication) processes in the gap
region are called the ‘avalanche’ process
(to be studied later).
30
Analyse for Region III

Townsend’s Current Growth Equation
 When the number of electrons, nx, travel with the distance dx,
this gives rise to (αnxdx) electrons.
 At x = 0, nx = no. ∴ Number of electrons reaching the anode;
 nd = no exp(αd)
 Average current = the number of electrons travelling/sec
 I = Io exp(αd)
 Townsend’s first ionization coefficient, α : average number
of ionizing collisions made by an electron per cm travel in
the direction of the field.
 no : electrons emitted from the cathode.
 Io = initial current at the cathode
31
Analyse for Region III

 The term eαd is called the ‘electron avalanche’
 eαd -1 represent the number of electrons produced by one
electron while travelling from cathode to anode.
 The electron multiplication is shown in figure current-voltage

growth characteristic
 The electrons in avalanche move towards the anode while the

positive ions move towards the cathode
 As if N0 = 0, IA = 0. Thus - the current cannot be sustained

without the present of the UV light source (photo-ionisation).
32
Townsend’s Process: Region IV
 As the voltage reaches V4, the anode

current increases very sharply
 Theoretically the current magnitude could
Region II
Region I
reaching infinity and the value is limited
Region
Region
only by the external resistance.
III
IV
 The current behaviour would not changed
even if the UV light source is removed. The
process is independence now.
 The gas is now said to be broken-down (in
breakdown state).
33
Analyse for Region IV

Current growth in the presence of secondary process
 The current-voltage characteristic occurred in the Region-IV of the

Townsend curve postulated three secondary mechanism
processes that affecting the current will maintain increases in
Region IV as the voltage increases even when the UV light source is
removed from the test (Region-III)
i. The positive ions liberated in an avalanche may cause
ionisation by collision while moving towards the cathode.
ii. These positive ions then may liberate electrons from the
cathode surface when they impinged / bombarded on it.
iii. The excited atoms or molecules in the avalanche may emit
photons when these atoms return to normal state and these
photons then may cause photo-ionisation (self made/
propagating process).
34

 Out of the mentioned secondary processes, the bombardment of

cathode by positive ions plays the significant role in Townsend’s
Mechanism
 The Townsend’s second coefficient conditions that satisfied the
breakdown or self-sustained discharge in gas (Region-IV)
involved with additional elements N+ and ‘γ’ (gamma) together
with the primary ‘α’, No and N elements.
 N+ is a number of electrons released from cathode surface per-
second by positive ion bombardment.
 γ is a number of electrons emitted from cathode by the
bombardment of one positive ion.
35

 Relationship of these elements (after eliminating N+) results the

number of electrons reaching the anode persecond N in steady
state condition as:
Eq 1.3
 The steady-state current is given by:
Eq 1.4
36

 α and γ both depend on the electric field stress. Thus if reach such
value so that the denominator becomes zero (0), the current
becomes independent of N0 and indeterminate (infinity).
 Thus we therefore get the Townsend criterion for the
breakdown of gases as:
Eq 1.5
 Normally electron avalanche eαd is very large (won’t give effect

when minus to 1), hence :
Eq 1.6
37

 Voltages above V3 & less than V4 as seen in the curve: γ(eαd -1)>1.
 Hence, the condition for breakdown is not satisfied but the
current is contributed by electron produced by both α and γ
process, and later being significant beyond V4.
 At V4, the denominator of eq. (1.5) tends to be zero and steady-
state electron flow ceases (stop).
 V4 is denoted as the breakdown voltage of the gap and the
corresponding field stress is known as the breakdown field stress.
 For V> V4, the circuit current is determined by the external
resistance only (without that the current goes indeterminate
(infinity) and the situation is similar to the short circuit state).
38

 When the condition given in eq (1.5) is satisfied (equal to 1), the

gaseous gap is filled with a large number of electrons and positive
ion called plasma (forth state of matter after gas, liquid & solid).
 This will offer a very high conducting path to the flow of current
through the gap and possibly cause the breakdown.
 The breakdown process at this stage now is independent even if
external photo-ionisation is removed.
 Rearranging the eq (1.5), the Townsend’s breakdown criterion
relationship between (α) and the distance d may be expressed as:
Eq 1.7
Whereas K can be treated as a constant.

39
Problem 1:
Estimate the static breakdown voltage V in kV of an ‘air gap’ at

100 mmHg pressure between two parallel plates that ensure a
uniform field. α/p as a function of E/p is shown in next figure.
Assume γ = 10-3 electron/incident positive ion. The gap
distance is 1 cm. Estimate the static breakdown voltages for N2,
H2, A and Ne gases as well. Neglect recombination and
attachment.
34
https://goo.gl/pTWZui
34
Problem 2:
Estimate the static breakdown voltage V in kV of an ‘air gap’ at

75 mm.Hg pressure between two parallel plates that ensure a
uniform field. α/p as a function of E/p is shown in next figure.
Assume γ = 10-3 electron/incident positive ion. The gap
distance is 3.5 cm. Estimate the static breakdown voltages for
N2, H2, A and Ne gases as well. Neglect recombination and
attachment.
35
Problem 3:
Estimate the static breakdown voltage V in kV of an ‘Ne’ and ‘A’

gases at 9 mm.Hg pressure between two parallel plates that
ensure a uniform field. α/p as a function of E/p is shown in
next figure. Assume γ = 10-3 electron/incident positive ion. The
gap distance is 4.5 cm. Neglect recombination and attachment.
36
Problem 4:
Using Townsend criterion for the breakdown of gases, analyses

which gases have the highest static breakdown voltage, Eb in
kV/cm at 143 mm.Hg pressure between two parallel plates that
ensure a uniform field. /p as a function of E/p can be determined
from the coefficient for field-intensified ionisation by electrons
graph shown in Figure. Assume  = 10-5 electron/incident positive
ion. The gap distance d is 0.025m. Neglect recombination and
attachment..
37
Time Lag for Breakdown

 Based on the Townsend’s mechanism, from the instant of
the breakdown voltage (i.e. V4), the breakdown takes place
in the gap requires sufficient time breakdown process. This
is called as the ‘total time for breakdown’ or 𝑡𝑏
𝑡𝑏 = 𝑡𝑠 + 𝑡𝑓
 whereas 𝑡𝑠 is the statistical time lag and 𝑡𝑓 is the formative

time lag.
38

 In practical, the breakdown due to the rapidly changing voltages
or impulse voltages, there is a time difference between the
application of a voltage sufficient to cause breakdown and the
occurrence of breakdown itself ⇒ time lag.
t : time lag.
ts: The time during the voltage
applications until a primary electron
appears to initiate the discharge and
is known as the statistical time lag.
tf: The time required for the
breakdown to develop once initiated
and is known as the formative time
lag.
39

 The concept is based on the fact that the gaseous cannot
breakdown at the instant once the gap field stress exceed its
breakdown value.
tf - Additional time lag that
requires by the positive
ts – Some average
charges created in the gap
time that requires
1 2 by the initiating electron
for an initiating
have to cross the gap and
electron has to
impinge on the cathode to
appear in the gap.
produce at least one more
electron.
40
Recall…
21
Ionization Streamer theory
21
Streamer theory
Why Streamer theory is proposed?
Because the Townsend mechanism was found to have

Problem with
Townsend’s
certain drawbacks in explaining the breakdown at

atmosphere pressure.
 In practice, breakdown voltage depends on the gas pressure
and the geometry of the gap.
 In ionization process, predict time lags = 10-5 s, but in actual
practice, breakdown was observed in very short time (10-8 s).
 Townsend mechanism predicts a very diffused form of
discharge, but in actual practice, discharges are filamentary
and irregular.
41
Streamer theory
Proposed by Rather, Meek & Lab (1940)
Streamer theories consider three formation mechanisms:

1 2 3
Large amount of
Formation of an Large local photo-ionisation
avalanche by enhancement of of gas molecules
initiating electron the electric field in the space at the
by Townsend’s α by the ion space head of avalanche
process (primary at the head of the (secondary
process) avalanche process)
42
43
Streamer’s Mechanisms
Process I
Avalanche
 An initiation of electron placed in the

gap will be accelerated towards the
anode and during its flight will cause
ionisation of gaseous molecules by
collisions.
 This will create avalanche of electrons and positive ions
 As the avalanche developed in the gap, the electrons being
much lighter will have higher mobility in comparing with
the positive ions.
 Therefore, the head of avalanche will be filled with the fast
moving electrons and the positive ions will occupy the tail.
44
Process II
enhancement of the electric field
 The space charge created by the ionisation

processes will distort the uniform field
initially applied across the gaseous insulator.
 This can be simplified as the two spherical
volumes having a concentration of negative
charge at the head and of positive charge at the
tail of avalanche.
 In this case, a space charge Er will be created and the field behind
and ahead of avalanche is increase by the space charge.
 This will cause the field between the electron and the ion cloud is
reduced. CONST 32
45
Process II cont.
 The field distortion will be increased with the
increase in αd.
 When the αd is attain a critical value, the
space charge field is comparable to E0
 The condition will create an intense ionisation
and excitation of the gas particles in front of
the avalanche head.
 Then the excited atoms return to normal state immediately.
 The process will releasing of photons (elementary particles for
electromagnetic interaction) in the gas ahead of the avalanche
head, which in turn generate secondary electrons.
46
Process III
Secondary process
 The generated secondary electrons from the photo-ionisation

then will generate further auxiliary avalanches as shown in.
 Since photons travel with the speed of light, the process leads
to rapid development of conduction channel across the gap
and develop as self-propagating streamer.
 The streamer proceeds across the gap and to form a
conducting filament of high ionised gas between electrodes.
 The gap therefore, breakdown!!!!
47
Comparison
 based upon the formation of
auxiliary avalanche in the
Townsend’s Mechanisms gap, helped by the primary α
 based upon successive process & the secondary
generation of avalanche photoionization process
initiated from the cathode  much faster than Townsend’s
surface, aid by primary α mechanism process
process and the secondary γ  can used to explain the
process. mechanism involving impulse
breakdown phenomena under
transient voltages
48
Streamer’s Mechanism
Problem 1:
A uniform static field was created in Methane at 102 mm.Hg

pressure by a parallel plate electrode system with a gap
distance of 3 cm. With an externally applied electric field E0 of
3.9 kV/cm, it was found that the space charge created by an
avalanche lay nearly in a sphere of radius r = 0.08 cm. Estimate
the value of αd favourable condition for the formation of
streamers in the methane gap.
49
Problem 2:

distance of 4 cm. With an externally applied electric field E0 of
2.5 kV/cm, it was found that the space charge created by an
avalanche lay nearly in a sphere of radius rd = 0.55cm. Estimate
the value of αd for favourable condition for the formation of
streamers in the methane gap. The constant absolute
permittivity K0 of the test area is 8.854x10-12 and the charge of
electron ε is 1.6x10-19
50
Problem 3:

distance of 55 mm. With an externally applied electric field E0
of 3 kV/cm, it was found that the space charge created by an
avalanche lay nearly in a sphere of radius rd = 0.35cm. Estimate
the value of α for favourable condition for the formation of
streamers in the methane gap. The constant absolute
permittivity K0 of the test area is 8.854x10-12 and the charge of
electron ε is 1.6x10-19
51
After breakdown…
Solid GAS
• Cannot recover their • Able to recover their
insulating characteristic insulating property
-need to be replace by a
HOW?
new one
-silicone rubber may  Immediately after breakdown, the
regain back its gas remains ionised (at high
temperature).
insulation strength
 As time increases (a few tens of
millisecond) the gas de-ionised
Liquid due to recombination of electrons
• Recover only after and positive ions and diffusion of
necessary purification charge articles from the gaseous
• Progressively gap (process settle down)
deteriorates after each  In the absent of the charged
particles, the gas regains its
breakdown
normal insulation
16 strength.
Post-breakdown phenomena
 Occurs after the actual breakdown has taken place.
d.c. voltage-current characteristic of an electrical discharge with electrodes having

no sharp points or edge
53
Terminology
 An electrical discharge results from the creation of a conducting
path between two points of different electrical potential in the
medium in which the points are immersed. If the supply of
electrical charge is continuous, the discharge is permanent, but
otherwise it is temporary, and serves to equalize the potentials.
 The spark breakdown: electron avalanche, Townsend discharge,
Paschen’s law.
 The glow discharge: cathode phenomena, positive column, laser
pumping, similitude, sputtering.
 Arc discharge: cathode phenomena, low and high pressure
plasma, negative resistance, carbon arc in air.
54
Ionization
Paschen’s Law
21
Paschen’s Law
 Paschen’s Law states that the breakdown voltage, Vb is a
the product of pressure & electrode separation;
𝑉𝑏 = 𝑓(𝑝𝑑) (1.8)
 We know temperature, T is relates to the pressure. So,

For the effect of temperature and pressure, experimental
results of breakdown potential in air:
55
Paschen’s Mechanism
Problem 1:
Work out the estimate breakdown voltage, Vb in kV during the

breakdown process using the Paschen’s Law equation when
the test was conducted inside a pressurised chamber at p = 1.5
bar filled with normal air. The tests temperature area is 120°C
The electrodes gap is 3.5cm. Use 1 bar = 750.06 mm.Hg.
56
Paschen’s Mechanism
Problem 2:
The test was conducted inside a pressurised chamber at p1 =

1.5bar and p2 = 2.5bars filled with normal air. Both tests
temperature area are 80°C. The electrodes with a gap of
0.015m.
i. Work out the estimate breakdown voltage Vb1 and Vb2 in
(in kV) during the breakdown process using the Paschen’s
Law equation. Use 1 bar = 750.06 mm.Hg
ii. Comment by comparing both results in terms of
percentage increment / decrement.
57
Breakdown in Solid Dielectrics
 Breakdown mechanism; intrinsic, electromechanical thermal,
breakdown of solid dielectric in practice.
59
Introduction
range from crystalline materials to semi-crystalline
polymer that blends with in-organics fillers
In power system application

solid dielectrics mainly being very complicated, but give
used as indoor and outdoor a great deal of versatility.
insulators separating potential
electrode to earthed electrode.
Thus studies of the breakdown
The solid insulators sometimes of solid insulating materials is
provide mechanical support to of great importance to system
the equipment. insulation studies.
60
Introduction
 There are variable types of insulator depending on the
application such as line-post type, pin-type, cap-and-pin and
long rod type insulator.
 The materials usually made from ceramic, glass or
composites (glass fibre reinforced with plastic and silicone
rubber).
16
Ceramic as the Choice of Materials In Outdoor Insulators
16
Introduction
Polymers such as XLPE, PTFE,
rubber etc. being used in cables.
Papers used in insulating

the transformer windings.
63
Problem with Solid Dielectrics

Permanent damage occurred upon breakdown and
the insulator needs to be replaced with the new one.
Normal industrial conditions However, factors like

temperature, AC, DC or impulse
The solid materials are found voltage, discharges in the
to exhibit a wide range of surrounding medium humidity,
dielectric strength depending pressure, duration of test etc.
upon the conditions of the may influence the measured
environment and method of breakdown strength in solid
testing. materials.
64
Problem with Solid Dielectrics
 Also for breakdown in solid dielectrics, its nature of failure

can vary, with different form of ageing taking place before
the actual catastrophic (severe) failure.
 Thus, the failure mechanisms are far removed from those
described in simple processes such as Townsend
avalanches.
65
Problem: Broken glass
(a)
Figure 1: Broken (a) glass and (b) porcelain insulators in a s
66
Problem: Broken porcelain
66
Problem: Polymer
What do you think happen to polymer insulator?
66
Short Term Breakdown Values of

Materials
67
Characteristics of solid
 Good dielectric – low dielectric loss, high mechanical

strength, free from gaseous inclusion and moisture,
resistant to thermal and chemical deterioration.
 Higher breakdown strength compared to liquids and gases.
 When breakdown occurs, solid get permanently damaged.
68
Breakdown Mechanisms
 Although the breakdown processes in solids are much less
clearly understood than those in gasses, a few distinct
mechanisms have been identified and currently accepted.
 The breakdown mechanisms proposed are dependent on
the time and of voltage application and may be classified as
follows:
a) Intrinsic/Ionic breakdown d) Breakdown due to treeing

b) Electromechanical breakdown e) Breakdown due to tracking and
c) Thermal breakdown erosion
69
a) Intrinsic Breakdown
The failure of materials which has no impurities or extrinsic
defect and is not subjected to external discharges.
relates to the property

Intrinsic breakdown?
of the material.
It is unlikely in reality that intrinsic
breakdown is ever seen in solids
although an argument can be made

that it can be seen in vacuum and
very pure gases and liquids.
70
Intrinsic breakdown similar to Townsend

in solid Breakdown in gases
can be defined as the highest breakdown value

for a given material obtainable after all known
In practice secondary effects (which may contribute to
breakdown) have been eliminated and the
application of voltage is short time.
At intrinsic field strength, free electron in the material is accelerate
without limit by the direct electrostatic action of the field only.
 For this material under test must

be pure and homogenous
This to ensure there are (without any interstices)
no external discharges.  the breakdown test should be
conducted under controlled
temperature and environmental
condition.
71
a) Intrinsic Breakdown
 The classical intrinsic breakdown models for solids was
developed by Forlich.
 Models considered the energy balance between electrons
and the dielectric lattice.
 In summary, for an electron to become highly excited it must
gain more energy from the field than it losses to the
lattice through collisions.
 The models can be categorised into two mechanisms:
Electronic breakdown Avalanche or

Streamer Breakdown
72
Intrinsic Breakdown: Electronic breakdown
takes place in very fast time

(~0.01us); thus, it is assumed to be
electronic in nature.
In this case, the breakdown is assumed to occur when electrons in solid sample
gain sufficient energy from the applied field to cross the ‘forbidden’ energy from
the valence dielectric to conduction band.
conductor
Conduction band
Energy Forbidden band/energy Energy

Conduction band
Valence band Valence band
73
Intrinsic Breakdown: Electronic breakdown

Conduction band
In pure homogenous dielectric material,

Energy Forbidden band/energy the conduction and valence bands are
separated by large ‘forbidden’ energy gap.
Valence band
 Normally at room temperature, in absent of electric field, electrons cannot

acquire sufficient energy to make valence transition to conduction band
(δ= 0).
 The transition process occurs with the application of an adequate electric
energy (large number electrons available in conducting band hence lead to
breakdown).
74
Intrinsic Breakdown: Avalanche /Streamer

Breakdown
Under influence of electric field
Similar to the streamer
an electron entering gasses breakdown theory
conduction band of
dielectric at cathode will Additional electron maybe produce
move to anode. if energy gained between collisions
exceeds lattice ionisation energy.
During the flight to anode
This may lead to formation of
it will collides with avalanche (similar in gasses theory).
crystal lattice, gaining
Under uniform field conditions, with
energy between collisions electrodes embedded in the
and loss energy during specimens, breakdown will occur
collisions. when the avalanche bridges the
electrode gap.
a description of the ordered arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules
75
b) Electromechanical breakdown
Based on principle when electrical gaseous
stress or force cause specimens collapse. solid
liquids
can support electrodes physically, but collapse under

electrostatic stresses imposed by large electric field.
When voltage is applied across solid dielectric, the
Stark & specimen is subjected to a compressive force due to
Garton electrostatic attraction between the surface charges.
analysis
The exerted pressure from the force may reach a few
kN/m2 at electric field stress of the order of 106/cm.
The thickness of the specimen will decrease due to
compressive force.
76
Stark and Garton analysis
 If the substance deforms without plastic deformation
settling in, the electrically developed compressive stress is
in equilibrium with the mechanical compressive stress:
Where
V = voltage apply (volt), εr= relative permittivity of the
do= initial thickness (m), material,
d = reduce thickness (m), ε0= permittivity of free space (~8.854
Y = Young’s modulus of the material x 10-12F.m-1)
(N/m2),
77
 Rearranging the equation 1.0 gives applied voltage as:
 The highest apparent electric stress before breakdown, if

the thickness of specimen do is compressed to d under
applied HV; Please refer Dr Rie
Slides for further
information. This
is simplification
only.
78
Find the voltage applied V in kV, that caused deformation of
1 cm thickness of fibre-glass composite-reinforced sample
(Young Modulus = 181kN/m2, εrcomposite= 5) to be at 0.75 cm
thickness. Use the relative permittivity of free air of
8.854x10-12.
Determine the highest electric stress Emax in kV/m of that

specimen.
79

A fibre-glass composite-reinforced material was taken as an
insulation sample. Parameters of the sample are Young’s
modulus = 175 kN/m2, relative permittivity = 6.7 and thickness
= 3 cm. Calculate the voltage applied, Vs in MV that can cause
deformation on the sample which reduces the thickness by
15.5% using Stark-Garton model.
80

A fibre-glass composite-reinforced material was taken as an
insulation sample. Parameters of the sample are Young’s
modulus = 175 N/m2, relative permittivity = 3.7 and thickness
= 2.3 m. Calculate the voltage applied, Vs in MV that can cause
deformation on the sample which reduces the thickness by
50% using Stark-Garton model.
81
c) Thermal breakdown
Conductivity in medium will create Joule heating.
Electric field applies to a dielectric generates continuous heat inside it due to
conduction current (even at the smallest one) and polarisation.
The conductivity, σ of the specimen increases with the temperature T.

Conservation of energy requires that rate the heat input of specimens is given
as:
heat generated by field = heat absorbed in material + heat loss
the heating rate that used to raise the heating rate that loss in
the temperature of solid specimen. surroundings due to conduction
and radiation to the environment.
82
c) Thermal breakdown
 Conduction current flows – heats up the specimen and the temperature rises.
 Heat generated transfers to the surrounding medium by conduction and
radiation.
 Breakdown occurs when heat generated > heat dissipated.
 Heat generated is proportional to the frequency – thermal breakdown is more
serious at high frequency.
 Thermal breakdown stresses are lower under AC condition then DC
 Thermal runaway is important for insulation of power systems, and application
frequently requires the use of cooling (e.g. oil, fan, heat exchanger etc.) to
maintain acceptable temperature.
 As the case of electromechanical breakdown, systems are normally designed to
run at the temperatures well below which might cause thermal runaway.
 However short periods of high power (overvoltages) might take the a dielectric
into thermal runaway region.
83
Breakdown Mechanisms
a) Intrinsic/Ionic breakdown d) Breakdown due to treeing
b) Electromechanical breakdown e) Breakdown due to tracking and
c) Thermal breakdown erosion
DRY and CLEAN
Breakdown in Solids After

Prolonged Operation
WET and
CONTAMINATED
84
Breakdown in Solids After

Prolonged Operation
conducting paths may be formed on the
insulator surfaces or there may be internal
discharges due to presence of voids in the solid
Under wet and which may lead to breakdown after a long time
contaminated conditions Chemical reaction of contaminant deposits with
water(by dew, snow, rain) would create
conducting path on the insulator surfaces.
Dries-up contaminant water generates dry-band arcing and prolong

occurrence of this condition would weaken the surface material hence
creating conducting path that may lead to the breakdown(failure).
85
d) Breakdown due to treeing

Electric tree grow - perhaps the clearest example of ageing
prior to breakdown (popular in polymeric insulation system)
The fundamental mechanisms behind tree

growth are still being researched, however
the physical manifestation of electrical
treeing is not in doubt.
A process of physical and chemical change within a polymeric material under

high electrical stress leads to the presence of an artefact which resembles a tree.
Tree grows in time, originating from sites of field enhancement, or void in

which electrical discharge can occur.
86
d) Breakdown due to treeing

A tree may take some time to initiate. The
inception time ti is dependent upon local field
strength. 1
𝑡𝑖 = ∝
𝐸
Minimum field required is still uncertain. Once the tree

has started growing it does not grow at uniform rate.
The second stage which much faster is represented by

growth of the visually recognised ‘tree’ pattern.
87
Stages of Tree Growth

Once a tree has started to growth it
If a tree bridges an insulation,
continues by electric discharge,
dielectric breakdown or failure does
resulting in tubular branches of tens
not necessary occur immediately.
of microns and less diameter.
Form of electrical tree is typically Until the process reaching the

categorised by amount and density runaway stage, the ultimate failure
of branching. occurs very rapidly.
 Dimension of tree is used to

characterised its growth.
 It also used to determine
volume of aged material to the
physical size of the tree.
88
Parameters Involving Electrical

Tree Growth
The initiation and growth of tree is a stochastic process and complex.
 material morphology and chemistry,  electric field,

Parameters like:
voltage and waveform  temperature
play key roles in determining tree growth...
 Vented trees are those which originate from an
electrode and reach out to another electrode.
 These trees grow faster as they have access to air
Trees can be classified which aids partial discharges.
broadly into
 Bow-tie trees are those that originate inside the
insulation. Since they originate inside the insulation
they do not have access to air and hence limited
partial discharge occurs.
 They progress slower than89 vented trees.
Electrical Tree Growth:

Application
the key failure mechanism for HV equipment
insulated with polymeric materials.
Polyethylene (cable insulation), mica filled epoxy resin (rotating

machine insulation) and filled ethylene(bushings), all affected by this.
 Direct measurement is not readily possible in transparent material.

 Components which fail in service or under test, have usually broken down.
 The fault current then destroying the pre-breakdown artefacts through
Joule heating.
90
Breakdown in Solids:
Water Tree Growth
mark on surface
specifically associated with polymer insulated power cables.
The trees grow in electric field in the presence of moisture. The mark
resembles a trees. These trees are :
1. transparent ,
2. not so easily observed
3. the mechanisms of growth not so well understood.
They are normally observed by slicing the material under investigation. They
absorb more stain than the host (e.g. polyethylene), thus easy to be seen
under an optical microscope.
The water tree itself does not lead to failure directly but may lead to
initiation of electrical tree.
91
Electrical Tree vs. Water Tree

 An electrical pre-breakdown
phenomenon in solid insulation.
 It is a damaging process due to partial tree-like defects,
discharges and progresses under high filled with water,
electric stress
 resembling the branches of a tree.
 occur only in the presence of

 formed in the absence of water
water in the insulation of
in dry conditions.
cables.
 caused by voids, impurities and
 originate from defects, voids or
defects in the insulation.
contaminants.
 accompanied with partial
 can cause premature failure of
discharge which may accelerate
the insulation.
insulation failure.
 usually invisible to the naked
 readily visible to the naked eye
eye in the dry condition
92
e) Breakdown due to tracking

Formation of a permanent conducting path,
usually carbon, across a surface of insulation
It symbolises an ageing of the surface of
solid insulators a consequence of discharges.
 This may results chemical decomposition, erosion or even melting of an

insulation. The degradation of such insulation may contain some conductive
organic substance (e.g. carbon residue).
• lead to conducting tracks forming on the
Eventually the conductive
surface of the insulation
track weaken the insulation
• lead to resemblance electrical trees / branch
system leading to occurrence
structures, focus damage at their tips and as
of flashover / system failure.
their extend, enhance the local field.
93
Tracking Application on Outdoor

Insulator
These insulators and other component
Overhead line tower always expose to the environmental
uses outdoor insulators elements such as contaminant, rain,
to erect the conductors. dew, snow, wind, lightning, etc.
This causes leakage current to Over the time, the outdoor insulator
flow through the conductive become covered with industrial pollution
layer, ionisation takes place, (metallic dust) and salt (in coastal
heating the surface and dries region), and with presence of water
up the layer. creating conductive contaminant layer.
94
Tracking Application on Outdoor Insulator
The process leads to formation of

These sparks will weaken dry band arcing producing sparks
the insulation surface. between separating moisture films /
droplets.
Prolonged sparking process can

The electric field stress of the
causes carbonisation at the region of
conducting region increases
sparking and this act as permanent
as the process act effectively.
conducting channels.
Breakdown occurs when the More and more conducting channels

carbonised tracks bridge the gap will be produced virtually shorten
between the electrodes, leads to the electrodes distance along the
flashover / system failed. insulation surface.
95
Treeing vs. Tracking

Occurs over a long time of electrical
stress; presence of conducting path.
Leakage current phenomena –
formation of spark and carbon track.
 Treeing occurs due to the  Surface Tracking – caused

erosion of the material at by dry-band arcing.
the tips of the spark. Formation of carbon track
 breakdown channels spread on the insulation surface.
through the insulation –  Tracking occurs even at low
formation of conducting voltages, whereas treeing
channels. requires high voltage.
96
 a)Process seen in liquids
 b)Movement of oils and particulates contamination
 c)Cavity formation
 d)Chemical reaction
97
Introduction
formation electron of avalanches is responsible
In breakdown of
for a rapid growth of current associated with
gaseous mechanisms the electrical failure of gaseous media.
But this not the case for the liquid and solid insulations.
 Numerous investigator have studied the breakdown of liquid and solid
dielectrics for decades.
 But the findings and theories postulated by such investigators cannot be
reconciled to produce acceptable general theories explaining breakdown
mechanisms in liquid or solid media.
 The state of knowledge in this area is still very crude & inconclusive.
98
Liquid Dielectrics
used in insulating media in HV equipment
particularly
- (e.g. oil immersed transformer, oil circuit
hydrocarbon oils
breaker, power capacitor, etc.)
In comparing with the liquid dielectrics have higher

gaseous dielectrics densities (more volume)
In comparing with the liquid dielectric fill the space to be insulate

solid dielectrics more easily (maximum space usage)
liquids are better coolants and have

Others
self-arc quenching capabilities
99
Problem with Liquid Dielectrics

In application,
less frequently used than either gases and solids, hence

their insulating potentials remain under exploited.
There is less significant activity in liquid

than solids because early studies allowed
reasonable models of behaviour to be
established, and there is lot less competition
in material development and engineering.
Currently only one of active
interest is the replacement of
mineral oils in transformers with
vegetables oils, to reduce
environmental impact.
101
Problem with Liquid Dielectrics

Solids range from crystalline materials to semi-
Recall solid… crystalline polymer blends with in-organics fillers, and
thus very complicated, but give a great deal of versatility..
Liquids on the other hand are on a molecular

scale more dynamic, but typically more
homogenous (uniform in composition)
LIQUID… Perhaps of this molecular freedom, experiment

results from liquids are more diverse (varies) and
often their behaviour is harder to predict.
It is also harder to keep liquid clean and free
from moisture.
102
Process seen in
liquids
Failure in Liquid Movement of oils

Chemical Dielectrics can be and particulates
reaction categorized as: contamination
Cavity
formation
103
a) Conduction Process Seen in

Liquids
Conduction in liquids is largely by ions.
High field conduction maybe through electrons
injected from the cathode, and thus avalanches
mechanism are proposed around this.
Dissociation of molecular species to form charged
ions may also play a part.
 However, in commercial application it is not generally held that such
mechanisms applies since the field required are well above observed critical
field values.
 Unlike solid, particulate defects can enter at liquid at any time. This might be
metallic particles, carbonised materials from discharges or degraded insulation,
and maybe, most importantly, water molecules.
104
b) Conduction due to Movement of

Oil and Particulate Contaminant
Can be categorised into

four mechanisms
Thermal Static
Dielectrophoresis Electroconvection
convection electrification
105
Problem: Dielectrophoresis in Liquids

What?
force is exerted on dielectric particle when

it is subjected to a non-uniform field
What is the effect?
can lead to collection of metallic(high permittivity)

particles at high stress regions.
What happen next?
This resulting in enhanced fields and localised discharges

thereby leading ultimately to insulation failure.
Such mechanisms can also lead to forced coalescence between droplets of
water in oils (thereby forming large drops from number of smaller ones).
106
Problem: Electro-convection in Liquid
space charge generated in the liquid is subject to

mechanical forces from the applied electric field.
This produces movement in the oil, and is a

mechanism for space charge movement and
particles defect mobility.
This also may cause further damage through partial

discharge and hence material degradation.
107
Problem: Static Electrification in

Liquids Known as electrostatic charge
may occurs when liquid dielectric are moving
across a surface of material. Usually occurs for
oils or water cooled systems.
Water benefit of being able to dissipate charges by ionic conduction,
whereas ions tends to have a longer life in oils.
When oils is force to a metallic structures (e.g. from windings, cores,

enclosures etc.), molecule picks up positive and negative charge.
The oils deposits negative charges on solid insulation surfaces,

retaining the positive charge.
This will creates fields within windings which can lead to failure.
Thus the correct choice of oils and flow conditions is essential in
transformer design.
108
c) Conduction due to Cavity Formation

How?
Because of viscous nature of liquids,

mechanical perturbations (e.g. flow changes)
may lead to bubbles (cavities) being formed.
The cavities may likely formed/trapped during
1. services (maintenance work, when manufactured), or
2. evolution of gasses through discharges at the
electrodes surface, or
3. ionisation decomposition in the bulk. Rapid changes in temperature
and pressure might also lead
to cavities.
These will lead to growth of the void and increase the discharge intensity,
and failure may follow.
109
d) Conduction due to Chemical

Reaction
Local partial discharges permeated (spread) in liquids may create high
permittivity chemical compounds, in which will increase/ lead to the
breakdown process.
Thus, chemical analysis of transformer and cable oils can be used to

identify if discharges are taking place.
If this seen to be the case, the greatest strength of liquids come into
play, as the oils now may need to be replaced with a new one. This is a
maintenance standard procedure in a cable and or transformer.
Clearly the oil which impregnates pressboard or paper is not replaced,

so damage in this material will often lead to failure.
110

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Materials in which electrostatic fields

The Purpose of Dielectric

Engineering dielectrics can be found everywhere ; but the desired

However the ‘non-electrical properties required’ often

Dielectrics as the Choice of Materials

Dielectrics as the Choice of Materials

ABB’s 550kV Indoor SF6 Gas Insulator

Dielectrics as the Choice of Materials

The level of breakdown process of

Breakdown in Liquid Dielectrics

Breakdown of Solid Dielectrics

Breakdown in Gaseous Dielectrics

Overview on gases failure

Overview on gases failure cont.

Electron  Since electrons have a longer mean free

Positively-charged ion Negatively-charged ion

Ionization Processes cont.

 It is necessary that the energy of the electron exceeds the energy

Ionization Processes cont.

Ionization Processes cont.

 When HV is applied between two electrodes, the gas

A free electron collides with a neutral gas molecule

Please refer Dr Rie Slides for further information

Ionization Processes : Step Ionisation

 The following processes can bring about the step ionisation.

The process involves the interaction

energy absorbed by an atom or molecule exceeds its

a) excitation of the atom to a higher energy state

 Electron emission due to positive ion impact : a positive ion

Ionization Streamer theory

 The test setup comprised with a parallel plate electrode

 An Ultra-Violet (UV) light was used to irradiate the cathode

 ‘α’ is an average number ionising collision made by one

Townsend’s Process: Region I

Townsend’s Process: Region II

Townsend’s Process: Region III

Townsend’s Process: Region III

 Thus the probability of the ionisation

Analyse for Region III

Analyse for Region III

 The electron multiplication is shown in figure current-voltage

 The electrons in avalanche move towards the anode while the

 As if N0 = 0, IA = 0. Thus - the current cannot be sustained

Townsend’s Process: Region IV

 As the voltage reaches V4, the anode

Analyse for Region IV

 The current-voltage characteristic occurred in the Region-IV of the

Analyse for Region IV

 Out of the mentioned secondary processes, the bombardment of

Analyse for Region IV

 Relationship of these elements (after eliminating N+) results the

 The steady-state current is given by:

Analyse for Region IV

 Normally electron avalanche eαd is very large (won’t give effect

Analyse for Region IV

Analyse for Region IV

 When the condition given in eq (1.5) is satisfied (equal to 1), the

Whereas K can be treated as a constant.

Estimate the static breakdown voltage V in kV of an ‘air gap’ at

Estimate the static breakdown voltage V in kV of an ‘air gap’ at

Estimate the static breakdown voltage V in kV of an ‘Ne’ and ‘A’