By Judith P.

Aguilar
z
Curriculum
Planning
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“The curriculum of a school is the formal and

informal content and process by which learners
gain knowledge and understanding, develop
skills, and alter attitudes, appreciations, and
values under the auspices of that school.

(Doll, 1996:15)”
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As educators, we are only as effective as what
we know. If we have no working knowledge of
what students studied in previous years, how
can we build on their learning?
If we have no insight into the curriculum in later
grades, how can we prepare learners for future
classes?

 Heidi Hayes Jacobs

 z Guide for Interaction
At the end of this powerpoint, you should
 Be able to define curriculum planning.

 Cite the various ways to plan the curriculum

based on models that have been formulated by
various theorists
 Analyze, compare and critically evaluate some
of these models, in developing/conceptualizing
your own.
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What is curriculum planning?

It is the continuous process which involves activities

characterized by interrelationships among individuals
and Groups as they work together in studying,
planning, developing, and improving the curriculum,
which is the total environment planned by the School.
 Mina Badiei
Mina Badiei
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Curriculum planning is…
the entire system of conceptualizing, deciding, designing,
integrating, evaluating, re-inventing an agreed set of ideas,
resolution so that the targets and aspirations may be achieved by
the educational organization.
The terrain, template on which the designed curriculum is to be
applied must be agreed upon by a group of decision-makers.
It is both product and process, and is influenced by the environment
and interests present where the organization is physically, culturally,
socially (and other domains) situated.

 Judith Planas-Aguilar
Sources:
• Key Concepts for Understanding
Curriculum by Colin J. Marsh (2009)

Curriculum Development, J. Wesley

Nullz(2015)

Understanding by Design, Grant

Wiggins and Jay McTighe (2005)
Importance of
z Planning

 Integrates learning, work, and activities

 Sets direction which helps determines achievability (so you don’t lose
track as you move through your lessons--
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-curriculum-planning.html)

 Clarifies priorities, points out areas of connectedness, shows where such

connectedness is lacking, therefore, calling attention to aspects of slack
and need
 Manner, method and process are meted out
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Importance of Planning
 Enables subsequent adjustments based on actual
situations
 For posterity—allows for evaluation and comparison of
future curricula
 Record of elements / components of planned curriculum
facilitates improvement
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Knowledge Types
Carson (2004) distinguishes:
 Empirical knowledge

 Rational Knowledge

 Conventional Knowledge

 Conceptual Knowledge
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 Cognitive Process Skills

 Psychomotor Knowledge

 Affective Knowledge

 Narrative Knowledge

 Received Knowledge
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Before we go into the

topic, reflect on these.
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Examples of Questions Raised when
Planning the Curriculum

H.M. Kliebard, 1977, “ Curriculum Theory: Give me a

for Instance” Curriculum Inquiry, 6,4.

Choice of what to teach—What should we teach?

 Why should we teach this… rather than that…?

Stake holders
 Who should have access to what knowledge?
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Examples of Questions Raised when
Planning the Curriculum
H.M. Kliebard, 1977, “ Curriculum Theory: Give me a
for Instance” Curriculum Inquiry, 6,4.
Rules for Teaching
 What rules should govern the teaching of what has been selected?

Interconnectedness of Parts to Create a Whole

 How should the various parts of the curriculum be interrelated in
order to create a coherent whole?
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The central question of the curriculum requires a

value decision.

Curriculum developers are not only concerned

with effective ways of teaching history but what
makes history a worthwhile study.
C. Marsh
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Benjamin Franklin: It would be well if they could be taught

everything that was useful, and everything that was

ornamental (attractive/enjoyable). But Art (the teaching)

is long, and Time is short. Therefore, it would be best if they

(learners) learned what was both useful and ornamental.

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 There is no “ONE SIMPLE
ANSWER” to a multifaceted set
of questions concerning
curriculum planning.

C. Marsh
To organize and facilitate the
understanding of the various bases
and approaches used in curriculum
planning, C. Marsh uses models.
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Models are essentially patterns that serve as guidelines to
action. Models can be found for almost every form of
educational activity.
Using a model to develop curriculum can result in greater
efficiency and productivity (Oliva, P. F. , Developing the
Curriculum, 2009). By examining models for curriculum
development, we can analyze the phases essential to the
process.

Fred C. Lunenburg, Curriculum Development:

Inductive Models (2011)
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 Trainee teachers should be able to use wide

range planning approaches so that they can
find an approach with which they can feel
comfortable. It would be very useful for
students to see lots of examples of
programmes and daily workpads so that they
can choose a style that suits themselves.
 Deschamp, P.A. (1980), Training
Teachers to Plan
 Curriculum
z Model as a Tool for Planning
by C. Marsh

Models Algorithms

Caveat 1: Models
conceptualizations may be useful and procedures
show a detailed
perspective but it
does not present
the TOTAL picture.
Current curriculum models can be broken down into two broad
categories—the product model and the process model.

The product model is results-oriented. Grades are the prime objective,

Caveat 2: Some
with the focus lying more on the finished product rather than on the
learning process.
models may
The process model, however, is more open-ended, and focuses on how
learning develops over a period of time. These two models need to be
straddle
taken into account between
when developing curriculum. two models need to be
taken https://tophat.com/blog/curriculum-development-models-
classifications.
design/urriculum.
 Other
z ways of Classifying Curriculum Models

 Content-driven  Curriculum as content

 Education as
 Objectives-driven
transmission
 Process-driven  Curriculum as process
and development
A. Ross, Curriculum
Studies and Critique Kelly, (2004), Curriculum,
Theory and Practice
(2000)
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Other Classifications of Models
There are three basic types of
curriculum design—

 subject-centered,

 learner-centered, and

 problem-centered design.

 https://tophat.com/blog/curriculum-
development-models-design/
 z Various Kinds of Curriculum Models

 Subject-centered curriculum design is not student-

centered, and the model is less concerned with
individual learning styles compared to other forms of
curriculum design.

 Learner centered gives emphasis to the needs of the

person/s learning.

 https://tophat.com/blog/curriculum-development-
models-design/
4 Groups
z of Curriculum Models
 Procedural approach Tyler (1949)

 Descriptive Approach Walker’s Naturalistic Model

 Conceptual ApproachUBD

 Critical Approach

 Posner, A Cognitive Science

Conception of Curriculum and
Instruction (1982)
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Procedural Models (C. Marsh, 2009)

 Rational Planning Model  Ralph Tyler (1949)

 Induction Model  Taba, Hilda (1962)

 Planning Levels Model  Goodlad and Richter

(1974)
 Intended Learning
 Posner (1974)
Outcomes Model
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Procedural Models (C. Marsh, 2009)
 Situational Aanlysis
 Skilbeck (1976)
Model

 P-I-E Model  Johnson(1967)

 Understanding by Design  Wiggins and McTighe

(1998)
 z Other Curriculum Models
 Objectives / Rational Model (1949) by Ralph Tyler

 by Tyler Inductive (Instructional) Model (1962) by Hilda Taba

 Deliberation Model (1970) by Schwab

 Naturalistic Model (1971) by Decker Walker

 Process Model (1975) by Lawrence Stenhouse’s

 Intended Learning Outcomes Model (1974)

 Constructivist Model by Resnick and Klopfer (1989)

 UbD by Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighes (1998)

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The Procedural Models

Ralph Tyler’s
z
Model, The Rational
Model, Objectives Model
In planning the curriculum, use the four questions:

 What educational purposes does the school want to attain?

 How can learning experiences be selected which are likely to

be useful in attaining these objects?

 How can learning experiences be organized for effective

instruction?

 How can effectiveness of learning experiences be evaluated?

Tyler’szModel
z Inductive Model or
Instructional Strategies Model by Hilda Taba
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Intended Learning Outcome Curriculum

 An intended learning outcome should describe what

students should know or be able to do at the end of the
course that they couldn’t do before. Intended learning
outcomes should be about student performance.
 https://tll.mit.edu/help/intended-
learning-outcomes
Intended Learning Outcome Curriculum
z Skilbeck’s Situational Analysis Model
z Skilbeck’s Situational Analysis Model
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Understanding by Design UbD™—
the Backward Model
by Wiggins and McTighe

 Primary goal --development and

deepening of student understanding.
 z Understanding by Design UbD™—
the Backward Model
 Understanding is seen most effectively when they are
provided with complex, authentic opportunities to:

1. explain,

2. interpret,

3. apply,

4. shift perspective,

5. empathize, and

6. self-assess.
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Understanding by Design
UbD™— the Backward Model

 The "six facets”-- conceptual lens through

which teachers can better assess student
understanding.
 zUnderstanding by Design UbD™—
the Backward Model

 Effective curriculum development a three-

stage design process called "backward
design"
 This backward design delays the planning of
classroom activities until goals have been
clarified and assessments designed.
 zUnderstanding by Design UbD™—
the Backward Model

 Avoids:
 "textbook coverage" and

 "activity-oriented" teaching, in which no clear

priorities and purposes are apparent.
 zUnderstanding by Design UbD™—
the Backward Model

 Student and school performance gains are achieved

through regular reviews of results (achievement data
and student work) followed by …

 targeted adjustments to curriculum and instruction

 zUnderstanding by Design UbD™—
the Backward Model

 Teachers become most effective when they seek

feedback from students and peers
 that feedback is used to adjust approaches to design
and teaching.
 Teachers, schools, and districts "work smarter"
through collaborative design, sharing, and peer
review of units of study.
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UbD

 A three-stage "backward planning" curriculum design

process anchored by a unit design template

 a set of design standards with attendant rubrics

 and a comprehensive training package to help teachers

design, edit, critique, peer- review, share, and improve
their lessons and assessments.
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Descriptive Models
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Descriptive Models

 It is important that those who plan the curricula

understand the complexity of the process.

 Objectives are not as important as the process.

 Focuses on how creators go about doing their task.

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Descriptive Models

 Decker Walker’s (1971) Naturalistic

Model
 Lawrence Stenhouse’s Process
Planning model
D. Walker’s Naturalistic Model
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Lawrence Stenhouse best known explorations of
process model

• Defined curriculum tentatively:

A curriculum is an attempt to communicate

the essential principles and features of an
educational proposal in such a form that it is
open to critical scrutiny and capable of
effective translation into practice.
Curriculum can be criticized on its
validity.

It can be evaluated on its practicality.

A curriculum is first imagined as a

possibility, then tested.
Curriculum should be grounded in
practice.

It can be varied according to taste.

Summary: Curriculum must be a

process that is practicable and
possible.
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Conceptual Models

 Joseph Schwab, (1970) Deliberation Model

 Armstrong (1994) and Campbell (1997) Multiple

Intelligences Model based on Howard Gardner’s “Eight
Intelligenes”

 Resnick and Klopfer (1989)Constructivist Model

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Deliberation Model

 Schwab called the quality of curricula of his time “moribund”

 Curriculum, according to Schwab, involved choice and

action, not theoretical discussions

 Schwab (1978a; 1978b; 1983) urged curriculum theorists to

return to the practical by exploring deliberation

 Lynne M. Hannay, Deliberative Curriculum

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Deliberation Model

 A curriculum is developed, not to meet theoretical

requirements, but rather as a response to practical problems

 Problem identifIcation A major focus of the deliberative

process is to solve and take action on the practical problems
that arise in the real world.

 Lynne M. Hannay, Deliberative Curriculum

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Deliberation Model

 Generation of alternatives --solutions to the posed curriculum

problem is central to the delibnerative process.

 Potential solutions are to he grounded in the four

commonplaces of curriculum: milieu, teacher, student, and
subject matter

 Lynne M. Hannay, Deliberative Curriculum

Joseph Schwab’s
z Four Commonplaces of Curriculum
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Deliberation Model

 Values-- The deliberative process as a rational and a value-

based activity is particularly germane to framing problems and
ta generating alternatives.

 Rationalintentional process and decision rather than

haphazard; a reasoned, calculated judgment ta proceed based
upon warranted choices rather than an unreasoned,
spontaneous move to action based upon habit or whim

 Lynne M. Hannay, Deliberative Curriculum

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Deliberation Model

 Personal practical knowledge refers to the stock knowledge

that each deliberator brings to the deliberative process

 three facets constituting personal practical knowledge: roles of

practice, practical principles, and image. By image we mean
something within our experience embodied in us as persons
and expressed and enacted in our Deliberative Curriculum
Theory practices and actions.

 Lynne M. Hannay, Deliberative Curriculum

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Deliberation Model

 Growth through deUberation

 As the deliberative process is to be educative for participants

 growth should be a natural component of the process

 Lynne M. Hannay, Deliberative Curriculum

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Deliberation Model

 Spiral Deliberation is not a linear process, but it is rather "a

spiral of meaning“

 Lynne M. Hannay, Deliberative Curriculum

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Deliberation Model

 Spiral Deliberation is not a linear process, but it is rather "a

spiral of meaning“

 Contextually bound nature of deliberation. As deliberative

curriculum development responds to a practical problem, the
process is contextually bound Each setting contains individual
actors who have their own preconceptions of what should be
taugh

 Lynne M. Hannay, Deliberative Curriculum

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Deliberation Model

 The curriculum development committee According to Schwab

(1983), the curriculum development committee is to include
individuals representing the commonplaces: teachers,
students, the principal, school board or community member,
subject matter specialist, and a curriculum process
chairperson

 Lynne M. Hannay, Deliberative Curriculum

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Deliberation Model

 The curriculum development committee According to Schwab

(1983), the curriculum development committee is to include
individuals representing the commonplaces: teachers,
students, the principal, school board or community member,
subject matter specialist, and a curriculum process
chairperson .

 Lynne M. Hannay, Deliberative Curriculum

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Deliberative Model

 Through the process of deliberation: AlI pool their ingenuities,

insights, and perceptions in the interest of discovering the
most promising possibilities for trial, rather than forming sides,

 Lynne M. Hannay, Deliberative Curriculum

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Critical Exploratory Theorists

Critical zExploratory Theorists
• Bernstein, 1973, Social Cultural Control

• Social Reproduction, (1976) Bowles and Gintis

• Cultural Reproduction (1982) Girous

• Literacy Artist (1974) Eisner

• Existential/Psychoanalytic (1980) Pinar

• Phenomenological (1980) Van Manen

Critical zExploratory Theorists
• Autobiographical/Biographical, (1992) Miller

• Gender Analysis and Feminist Pedagogy,

91991) Lather

• Gender Analysis & Male Identity, (1992) Sears

• Race, 1988 McCarthy

• Postmodern/Poststructural (1995) Slattery

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Reconceptualizaiton

 A term adopted by critical theorizers to

describe new forms of theorizing.
 Critical theorizers were united in
opposing the rationalistic and scientific.
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Klohr (1980) identified 9 points of focus of
the theorizers’ efforts:

1. Organic view is taken of people anod their relation

to nature
2. Individual is the chief agent in the construction of
knowledge
3. Curriculum theorists draw heavily on their own
experience as method
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Klohr (1980) identified 9 points of focus of
the theorizers’ efforts:

4. Theorizing recognizes preconscious realms of

experience
5. Foundational roots of theorizing lie in existential
philosophy, phenomenology, and radical
psychoanalysis
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Klohr (1980) identified 9 points of focus of
the theorizers’ efforts:

6. Personal liberty and attainment of higher levels of

consciousness become central values in the
curriculum process
7. Diversity and pluralism are characteristics of the
social ends and of the means
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Klohr (1980) identified 9 points of focus of
the theorizers’ efforts:

8. Reconceptualization of supporting political social

operations is BASIC.
9. New language forms are generated to translate
fresh meanings for example metaphors.
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Model that Straddles between

Procedural and Descriptive
Model developed by Leonard Cohen and Hilda Taba
Also known as Dynamic Model
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Criticisms of subject-based /model

Raudenbush, Rowan, and Cheong (1993) pointed out--

that although current conceptions of learning encourage the pursuit of

higher order objectives, many teachers lack adequate preparation for
teaching higher order thinking, and, additionally, organizational
conditions at schools often discourage the pursuit of higher order
objectives.

From the perspective of Raudenbush et al., the pervasive influence of

behaviorism in curriculum and instruction provides a potential
explanationFrom the perspective of Raudenbush et al., the pervasive
influence of behaviorism in curriculum and instruction provides a
potential explanation
 “You don't always need a plan.
Sometimes you just need to
breathe, trust, let go and see
z
what happens.”

― Mandy Hale
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Commentaries and Criticisms
 Pinar, (1980) Planning should remain personal, individual and
informal as possible. Curriculum should not entail specific steps
because curriculum can not be designed for others.
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