In the name of Allah Kareem,

Most Beneficent, Most Gracious,

the Most Merciful !
Research Process
1.Select a Topic / Problem

2.Literature review

3.Research design

4.Data Collection

5. Data Preparation

6.Data Analysis

7.Discussion and Conclusion

8.Report Writing
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 A LITERATURE REVIEW

“A literature review is a body of text and its main goal is to bring the reader up to date
with current literature on a topic and forms the basis for another goal, such as the
justification for future research in the area. It seeks to describe, summarize, evaluate,
clarify and/or integrate the content of previous researches".

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.27)

 WHY LITERATURE REVIEW ?
The literature review in a research study accomplishes several purposes that are as
follows:

1- Distinguishing what has been done form what need to be done

2- Discovering important variables relevant to the topic
3- Synthesizing and gaining a new perspective
4- Establishing the context of the topic or problem
5- Rationalizing the significance of the problem
6- Enhancing and acquiring the subject vocabulary
7- Understanding the structure of the subject
8- Relating ideas and theory to applications
9- Identifying the main methodologies and research techniques that have been
used
5

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.27)

 HOW TO CODUCT LITERATURE
REVIEW
There is no one way to conduct a literature review, but many scholars proceed in
a systematic fashion to capture, evaluate and summarize the literature.

1. Identify the topic

2. Locate sources of literature

3. Read the literature

4. Analyze the literature

5. Assembling and organizing

6. Writing the literature

1. Identification of Topic
•Chose Area for research
1 (Management Sciences)

•Select field of research

2 (Finance, HRM, Marketing)

•Select topic of research

3 (Advertising in Marketing)

•Refine topic of research

4 (Refining topic)

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 2. SOURCES OF LITERATURE
The literature sources available to help you to develop a good understanding of and
insight into previous research can be divided into three following categories:

Primary Sources Secondary Sources Tertiary sources

Reports Indexes
Theses Newspapers Abstracts
Emails Books Catalogues
Conference reports Journals Encyclopedia
Company reports Internet Dictionnaires
Unpublished Some government Bibliographies
manuscript publications Citation indexes
sources Search Engines

Adapted from “research Methods for business Students” by Mark Saunders (p.68)
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 TERTIARY SOURCES
Tertiary Resource available at Superior can be accessed via following address
http://www.digitallibrary.edu.pk/superior.html Or
Through Superior website www.superior.edu.pk by clicking on
Digital Library link
Name Type Internet address
Google Search engine www.google.com
Google Scholar Search engine for www.scholar.google.com
scholarly material
Yahoo Search engine www.yahoo.com
Ebscohost Database

Springer link Database http://www.springerlink.com

Blackwell synergy http://www.blackwell-synergy.com

Oxford press Publisher http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/oso/public/index.

html
University Of Chicago Publisher http://www.journals.uchicago.edu
Press

Adapted from “research Methods for business Students” by Mark Saunders (p.68)
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3.READING THE LITERATURE
Read abstract of the article or preface and
introduction of book

Skim through the article/ book

Survey the main parts of the article/ book

Read in detail the selected important parts

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.53)

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 4. ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
Analysis is the job of systematically breaking down something into its
constituents parts and describing how they relate to each other – it is not random
dissection but a methodological examination.

There are two types of analysis i.e. argument analysis and systematic analysis.

1. Systematic Analysis: Systematic Analysis is the kind of

analysis in which we systematically evaluate the literature
on the basis of key ideas, theories, concepts and
methodological assumptions and the overall structure
and format of the research work
2. Arguments Analysis: If a range of arguments is being
analyzed, you will need to explicate the claim, data and
warrant for each argument. In this way, the identification
of the individual and similar elements in a range of items
can be compared and contrasted.
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 1. SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS

Systematic Analysis is the kind of analysis in which we systematically evaluate

the literature on the basis of key ideas, theories, concepts and methodological
assumptions and the overall structure and format of the research work. In
systematic analysis we can do the analysis of single research work but
preferably we should go for comparative analysis of two or more studies on the
same topic

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 COMPARING AND CONTRASTING

A common practice in the social sciences is to make comparisons between

the works and ideas of different authors. This usually involves finding
common points of interest between, definitions of main concepts, kinds of
data collected and the interpretations of findings. The practice can be
useful in identifying common areas of interest and differing positions on
similar topic areas.

Following figure points out the levels of comparison and contrast. The
point to note, however, is that comparing theorists has inherent
difficulties, mainly to do with the selection of criteria or points of reference
that are valid and comparable

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COMPARING AND CONTRASTING

Theorist A Theorist B

Area of
difference

Ontology Ontology
Epistemology Epistemology
Morality Area of Morality
Politics similarity Politics
Interpretation Interpretation
Data Data
Methodology Methodology
Axiology Axiology
Rhetoric Area of Rhetoric
difference

Points of reference for

making a comparison
between theorists

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.131)

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 2. ARGUMENT ANALYSIS

An argument involves putting forward reasons to influence someone’s belief

that you are proposing in the case (Hinderer, 1992). Whichever way someone
makes an argument they are attempting to convince others of the validity (or
logic) of how they see the world and convince us that we should see it the way
they do.

An argument has at least two components: a point and a reason:

Making a point (or statement/ conclusion)
Providing sufficient reason (or evidence) for the point to be accepted by
others

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 METHODS OF ANALYZING ARGUMENTS

There are basically two method to analyze and evaluate arguments

intelligently and fairly:

1. Fisher’s method of critical reading

2. Toulmin’s method of argumentation analysis

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 Fisher’s Method of critical reading:
Fisher (1993) provides a method for a systematic reading of texts. This initial reading
technique enables the reader to systematically extracts the main elements (words) of
any arguments for the purposes of evaluation.

SKIM THROUGH THE TEXT

CIRCLE ANY INFERENCE INDICATORS (THUS,

THEREFORE etc.)

UNDERLINE CONCLUSION ( C ) & PLACE REASONS ( R ) IN

BRACKETS < >
INDICATED BY WORDS LIKE BECAUSE, SINCE etc.

CONSTRUCT AN ARGUMENTS
DIAGRAM

R=C
R1 + R2 = (Therefore) C1 (Interim conclusion)
C1 or R3 = (Therefore) C2 (Main conclusion)

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Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.110)
 Toulmin’s Method Of Argumentation Analysis:

Toulmin developed an approach to argumentation analysis that was rooted in

the practice rather than the theory of logic.
He proposes that an argument can be broken up into a number of basic
elements that are as follow

•Claim an arguable statement

•Evidence Data used to supports the claim
•Warrant (or permit) an expectation that provides the link
between the evidence and claim
•Backing Context and assumption used to support the validity
or the warrant and evidence

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Example:
Following is an example from everyday life. In dry summers consumers are asked and
expected to save water through careful and limited use. This is normally taken to mean
water should only be used for essential things-watering lawns, filling swimming pools
and washing cars are prohibited. The argument for this could have the following
structure

Data Claim
so
Car washes can use upto
Car owners should
250,000 gallons of water Warrant restrict washing their
in the main summer Since cars in areas of the
weeks. This quantity
country where there is
depletes water reservoirs Water is essential a water shortage
by 20% during a season and people should (Restriction).
when there is heavy not waste it in
water usage. times of shortage

Backing
because

Water shortage cause inconvenience, are a danger to

people and can be costly to consumers.

Adopted from “Doing a literature review “ by Chris Hart p.87)

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 DEFINING (CONSTRUCTING MEANING)

Defining is about placing boundaries around the meaning of a term; it comes

from the Latin defenire – to put boundaries around. The boundaries relate to the
way in which a term or word is used in a give context. There are different types
of definitions, such as formal definitions and stipulate definitions.

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.110)

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CONNECTION BETWEEN ANALYSIS, SYNTHESIS,
COMPREHENSION & KNOWLEDGE
Analysis Select, Unpacking a thing into its constituent parts in order to
differentiate, infer or determine the relationship and/or organizing
dissect, and break principle between them; thereby isolating the main
up. variables.
Synthesis Integrate, Synthesis is the act of making connections between the
combing recast, parts identified in analysis. It is not simply a matter of
formulate, reassembling the parts back into the original order, but
reorganize. looking for a new order. Rearranging the elements
derived from analysis to identity relationship or show
main organizing principle or show how these principles
can be used to make a different phenomenon.
Comprehension Understand, be Interpreting and distinguishing between different types
able to explain, of data, theory and argument; thereby being able to
distinguish, and describe, discuss and explain in various ways the
interpret. substance of an idea or working of a phenomenon.

Knowledge Define, classify, Perceiving the principles, use and function of rules,
describe, name, methods and events in different situations; classify,
use, recognized, characterize, generalize, analyze the structure of, and
become aware of, learn from experimentation on the meaning of, concepts
understand, and their application.
problem solve.

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 5. ASSEMBLING ORGANIZING
LITERATURE USING MAPS
Mapping ideas is about setting out, on paper, the geography of research and
thinking that has been done on a topic. In other words it is the process of
organizing the content of the literature into sections and subsections in order to
make connections between ideas contained in different articles, books and work
published over a certain time period. It is an effective way of getting overview of
the topic
TYPES OF MAPS
There are four types of maps that are as follows

1. Feature map
2. Tree construction
3. Content Map
4. Taxonomic Map
5. Concept Map Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.142-143)
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 1- Feature Maps:
Feature maps are a method by which the content of many articles can be systematically analyzed
and recorded in a standardized format the method entails recording the key features of a
predetermined aspects of study to
- Produced a summary schemata of the argument proposed by that study
- to locate any similarities and differences between other studies on the topic
Extract from an analysis of feminist analysis of fragrance advertisement.
Author / Questions /Concerns Materials/ Arguments Concepts/Form of Main Sources
Date Evidence Analysis
shield, How is meaning Photocop visual images communicate meaning Feminist/structuralism Williamson,1978
1990 communicated y ads for through codes/ messages which are /semiotics barthes, 1985
through visual cologne, produced within the dominant male male interest ad power Nichols, 1981
images, ads in 2illustrati ideology of looking Berger, 1973
particular? How do ons, other images reflect/reinforce/reproduced objectified/ Haug, 1987
spectators of different studies dominant cultural discourse of commodified female
genders find attractiveness
pleasures in images Codes/messages and referent systems can
constructed for the therefore be analyzed using visual images
male interest? to reveal the dominant ideology

Yanni, how do women enter other ad images (visuals/text) continually Feminist critique. Jhally, 1987
1990 into the thing-people studies no devalue women while maintaining a Addresses the nature Berger, 1972
relationship illustratio priority/ privilege to male experience and and function of Williamson, 1978
differently form men ns position of power to define convention advertising through (1) Kappeler, 1986
how can feminist codes the structure of
analysis of ads theories of commodities, representations (2) the
provide evidence for the material and symbolic meaning of process of
the power of women is misconceived by ads which commodification (3) the
dominant misrepresent and objectivity women for the power of ads.
ideological forms of sake of beauty as it were a commodity
constraint women are therefore given material value

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.148-149) 30

2- Tree Construction:
A subject tree aims to show the different ways in which the major topic has developed sub-
themes and related questions. The tree shows how the topic has branched out not the author.
Following is the example of subject relevance tree based on the general topic of advertising,
showing some of the sub-topics within the general literature.

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.152)

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3- Content Maps:
Content map is a common hierarchal (top to bottom) arrangement of the contents of a topic
starting with the conceptual elements, subdivided into segments and further into levels
producing a linear flow diagram.
Following is an example of content map developed by Tesch (1990) for partial classification
of qualitative research.

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.153)

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4- Taxonomic Maps:
Closely related to content maps are taxonomic maps (sometimes called elaboration maps), that aims to
show how a range of things can be placed into a general class. They also show differences between
objects within the general class.
Following is the example of taxonomy of passenger cars

Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.154)

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5- Concept Maps:
In order to turn declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge we often need to now the linkages
between concepts and processes. A concept map can be useful because it can be constructed to show the
relationships between ideas ad practice and include, if necessary, reference to relevant examples.
Following figure shows some of the processes involved in undertaking and analysis of qualitative data.
Note how different concepts can be linked in multiple ways and how emphasis can be given to some
links. Also note the cause and effect or problem and solution structure that is an implicit assumption
underlying all concept maps.

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Adapted from “Doing Literature Review” by Chris Hart (p.154)
 6. WRITING THE LITERATURE REVIEW
We have already studied that in quantitative and mixed method literature review
plays an important role and its is usually composed in five parts.

Introduction

Review on independent variable

Review on dependent variable

Review on the relationship of

independent and dependent
variables

Summary

Adapted from by Creswell, 2003 (p.45)

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MODULE BRM

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Course Aims
• To introduce the basic philosophical and methodological approaches currently used as a foundation for
research in Business, Management and Social Sciences.
• To discuss critically the conventional distinction between “quantitative and qualitative” research and its
usefulness in planning and evaluating research.
• To develop the skills of literature review and critical analysis of research reports by giving practical
exposure to locating literature and reviewing critically by argumentation, reading analysis and mapping.
• To provide a comprehensive knowledge about the introduction, purpose statement, research questions,
hypothesis, use of theory limitations and significance for the development of rationale in designing
research.
• To provide a comprehensive understanding about quantitative research and develop their skills in different
areas like operationalization, quantitative methods and ensure the reliability and validity of the data.
• To make a clear understanding for the use of SPSS (which is related to their previous course “Quantitative
Techniques”).
• To provide a comprehensive understanding about qualitative research and develop their skills in using valid
and reliable qualitative methods.
• To discuss various ways of designing research which focuses on the purpose of research, the use of theory
and the research significance, its limitations and delimitations.
• To present a range of ethical issues relevant to the conduct and publication of research.
• To give an introduction of Nvivo (for qualitative data).
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Classification Topics
At the end of this module, successful students will be able to demonstrate the
knowledge of:
 A range of methodological approaches and philosophical assumptions to
organizational and professional research.
 Ways of formulating and defining business and management research problems,
Knowledge and
significance or limitations.
Comprehension  Understanding of Literature Review and critical Analysis
 Issues in, and methods of, research design.
 The importance of ethics and values in business research.
 The requirements for effective analysis and interpretation of quantitative,
qualitative data and mixed methods.
At the end of this module, the successful students will be able to:
 Make informed decisions about different research approaches, strategies,
design and methods which are relevant to different purposes
 To write a literature review related to business research problems.
Application and
 To conduct interviews and interpret them to develop results.
Skills  To conduct surveys and develop analysis & interpretation of them.
 Write a successful research proposal which outlines and evaluates the research
process and method(s) most appropriate to investigate the student’s own
research questions/subject.
At the end of this module successful students will be able to:
 Critically evaluate the range of qualitative and quantitative data and information
Analysis and
collection strategies in a meaningful manner to solve problems.
Synthesis  To analyze the research and findings of other people. 38
 Analyze the quantitative & Qualitative data for interpretation of results.
 FINAL PROJECT
TO DEVELOP A RESEARCH PROPOSAL FOR AN
APPROVED RESEARCH PROBLEM
Guidelines and Assessment Criteria
(a) Abstract
(b) Aims of the investigation:
Including the need for / value of the research
(c) Problem formulation:
Relevant social / business context
Main research questions / hypotheses
Brief summary of theoretical / conceptual bases of the project
Target population of interest
(d) Selective literature review:
Brief summary (max. 3000 words) of the areas to be addressed, and of illustrative
resources, including selective bibliography in recognized format
(e) Initial choice of methodological approach * and research strategy (ies)
(f) Fieldwork:
An outline (only) of plans for methods of data production / sources, and for
negotiating access
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(g) Research design:
Outline of plans for indicators / descriptors for key concepts
Methods for ruling out alternative explanations (or descriptions)
Sampling procedures / selection of cases (organizations or individuals)

(h) Discussion of issues of validity and reliability – or alternative

criteria for research quality (to be clearly specified)
(i) Ethical and other commitments:
Brief discussion of any major ethical or legal dilemma and political or
organizational constraints etc.

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Presentation

The aim of the presentation is to allow students to gain constructive feedback from
their peers regarding their comparative reports as well as allowing them to demonstrate
their presentation skills. The structure of the presentation will largely mirror the
structure of the report and thus contain the comparison on the basis of three basic
research approaches i.e. qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods.
Points to consider when marking presentations are:

• Timing of presentation.
• Clarity of concepts.
• Structure of the presentation.
• Quality of overheads, handouts etc.
• Application of theory to practice.
• Ability to answer questions effectively.
• Use of sources of information.

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Criteria of Assessment
• Clarity and conciseness of your specification of various aspects of the proposal.
• The relation of details of your research design specifically to the aims of your
particular study (That is, credit will not be given for the production of generalities
about research design that are unrelated to any particular study).
• Justification of key decisions made.
• Completeness of coverage of guidelines.
Weighting: 20 Marks
• Guidelines (a,b,c) (5% + 5% + 15%) 25%
• Guidelines (d,e) 15%
• Guidelines (f,g) 40%
• Guideline (h) 10%
• Presentation (including bibliography in a recognized format) 10%

Length:
Maximum 6000 words, plus references (at most 10) in selective bibliography (based on
selective literature review).
Weightage: 30% (project: 20%, presentation: 10%)

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