GENETICS &

HEREDITY
How Genes Work
GENETICS - The study of the way
animals & plants pass on to their
offspring such as:
eye color, hair color, height, body
build, blood types, intelligence,
gender, etc.
HEREDITY - Characteristics that a
child receives from both parents
 DNA & Today
1988: DNA profiling was used
in Britain, murder of 2 girls
1994: OJ Simpson murder trial
Crime shows
Cold Cases
Review: What is DNA?
DNA stores our genetic
information
 Where is DNA found?
 Nucleus of cell
 What is a gene?
Section of DNA that codes
for a trait
 Where are genes found?
 Chromosomes
 What is a chromosome?
Bundles of DNA
 Where are chromosomes
found?
 Nucleus of cell
What do these words have
in common?

DNA
Chromosomes
Genes
Humans are made up of:
 20,000 – 30,000 genes
 23 pairs of chromosomes
 3 billion nitrogen bases
Human Genome

Genetic map of
the human body
 Includes chromosomes
and genes
Human Genome (cont.)

You inherit 2
copies of every
gene
 one from mom
& one from dad
 Human Genome (cont.)

Only 1% of your DNA codes

for genes
Why are genes important?
 Genes contain the
instructions to make
proteins
Structure of DNA
 Made up of parts:
nucleotides
 Chemical
building blocks
 Parts of a Nucleotide

 Nitrogen-containing Base
(A, T, C, G)
 Sugar (Deoxyribose)
 Phosphate
Group
 Base
Pairing
DNA – Basic Structure

Backbone: Alternating
Sugar & Phosphate
 Inside: Nitrogen Bases
Shape: Double Helix
Making Copies of DNA
Every time our body
makes new cells, we need
more DNA
This process is
called:
DNA Replication
DNA Replication – Step 1

Helicase (enzyme)
 unwinds chains
 separates
nucleotides by
breaking bonds
 DNA Replication – Step 2
2. DNA
polymerase
assembles new
chains
 Complementary
to one another
DNA Replication – Step 3
3. DNA ligase
links the two
sections
DNA Replication – End Result

Two identical
strands of DNA
(Two daughter
DNA)
Reading the Genetic
Code
 Genes have the instructions
to make proteins
 Occurs in two steps
 Transcription
 Translation
Review: Protein Synthesis
Q:Which organelle helps
make proteins?
Ans: Ribosomes
Transcription
 Process of copying
genetic information from
DNA to mRNA
(messenger)
 Takes place in nucleus
Why do we need mRNA?
Carries copied info from
nucleus to ribosomes
DNA cannot leave the
nucleus
 Protect the code
Transcription Steps
RNA Polymerase
1. Unwinds DNA double
helix
2. Adds RNA nucleotides
to build mRNA chain
Transcription Steps (cont.)

3. mRNA moves out of

nucleus
 Translation
 Process of assembling
amino acids into proteins
on ribosomes
 Order of amino acid
determines protein
 Translation Steps
1.) 3 letter code on
tRNA anticodon
matches up with
mRNA codon
 tRNA (transfer)
 Translation Steps (cont)
2.) tRNA interprets the
mRNA code sequence
3.) Code is read 3 letters at
a time
 Translation Steps (cont)
4.) Amino acids bond
together to form proteins
Mutations
 A change in the copying of
the genetic message
 Can occur during DNA
replication or transcription
 Rare - occur in 1 out of 1
billion bases
Factors that affect the rate of
mutations
Mutagens
Radiation / UV
light
Chemicals
 Translating The Code
Example
 tRNA anticodon: AAA
 mRNA codon: UUU
UUU codes for amino acid
phenylalanine
Translation

mRNA
tRNA
Translation
Codon (mRNA) Table
GENETICS &
HEREDITY
 CELL: Basic unit of all living matter (Adult = over 10 trillion
cells)
CYTOPLASM: Substance of a cell outside of 
the nucleus
NUCLEUS: Central point of 
cell / contains genetic coding 
for maintaining life systems 
and issuing commands for 
growth & reproduction
CHROMOSOMES: 
46 in each Nucleus (23 pairs)

GENES: bands on 
chromosomes (thousands 
of genes) 
DNA on genes (billions of 
DNA)
 How many chromosomes are there in
each cell?
 46 CHROMOSOMES or 23 PAIRS

 How many chromosomes are in

Reproductive (egg & sperm) or Germ
cells?

 23 CHROMOSOMES
 (combined = the 46 chromosomes)
 CELL DIVISION

 MITOSIS: Cell divides by copying the DNA -

cell splits - new cell with normal number
of chromosomes (Cell growth & repair)

 MEIOSIS: Creates 1/2 sets of chromosomes

 Women = 23
 Men = 23
 Combined = 46
 Female Sex Cells XX (Ovum or Egg)
 Male Sex Cells XY (Sperm)

 Baby Girl = XX Baby Boy = XY

 Conception is the union of an OVUM
and the SPERM
 Gender is determined by the father!
 Someone should have told King
Henry VIII!
 DOMINATE Gene: More powerful - trait seen in
person

 RECESSIVE Gene: Weaker and hides in the

background. Trait can only determine when two of
them are present - may show up in future
generations.

 CARRIER: Has a recessive gene that is not visible

 SEX-LINKED: Mother passes the recessive X to son

 Color-blind male receives the trait from his
mother.
 The mother is usually not color-blind herself.
 B = BROWN eyes (dominate)
 b = BLUE eyes (recessive)
 BB = BROWN eyes
 bb = BLUE eyes
 Bb = BROWN eyes but carry the
recessive BLUE eye gene
 MULTIPLE BIRTHS
 ZYGOT: the cell that is formed when a sperm
fertilized an egg (ovum)
 MONOZYGOT: Identical Twins 1 Egg + 1 Sperm
 Fertilized ovum splits into 2 identical cells -
Always the same gender
 DIZYGOT: Fraternal Twins 2 Eggs + different Sperm
 Will look different - May be different or the same
gender
 MULTIPLE BIRTHS: More than 2
 May be identical, fraternal or both - May be
different or the same gender
 CONJOINED (Siamese) TWINS: Ovum splits apart, but
the separation is not completed. Babies are joined
at some part of their bodies.
 What 4 FACTORS may contribute to
Multiple Births?
 1) History in the family
 2) Increased hormones naturally
 More than 1 egg released
 3) Fertility Drugs
 More than 1 egg released
 4) Age 32-36
 Likelihood of multiple pregnancies in the United States

 Twins: Blacks- 1 in 73 Whites 1 in 93

 Triplets: 1 in 10,000
 Quadruples: 1 in 620,000
 Sex - Linked or X - Linked Defect:
When an X-gene from the mother is
faulty. There is a 50/50 chance of
the child inheriting the disorder.

 Syndrome: When a group of signs

and symptoms occur together and
characterize a particular problem.
 Congenital Malformation: A condition
that is present at birth.

 Multi-factorial Defects: Interaction of

genes with other genes OR with
environmental factors.

 Chromosomal Error: The fertilized egg

cell that contains chromosomes in an
abnormal number, structure or
arrangement.
 2. A heterozygous red flowered plant was crossed to
another heterozygous red flowered plant what is the
genotypic and phenotypic ratio?
 R – red flowers r – white flowers