TREATMENT OF WATER—

DESIGN AND OPERATION

CONTROL
Surface Water
The quality of surface water depends on the watershed
area drained, land use, location and sources of natural
and man-made pollution, and natural agencies of
purification, such as sedimentation, sunlight, aeration,
nitrification, filtration, and dilution. Since these are
variable, they cannot be depended on to continuously
purify water effectively.
Treatment Required
• The treatment required is dependent on the federal
and state regulations and on the probable changing
physical, chemical, and microbiological quality of
the water source. This emphasizes the importance of
adequate meteorological and hydrological
information, the sanitary survey previously
discussed, and its careful evaluation. The evaluation
should take into consideration the existing land-use
zoning and probable development. Water treatment
plants should not have to bear the total burden and
cost of elaborate treatment because of water
pollution of its source water.
• The water purveyor should therefore take an
active role in stream, lake, and land-use
classifications and be aware of all existing and
proposed industrial and municipal wastewater
outlets and nonpoint pollution sources. The
pollution from these sources should ideally be
eliminated or minimized to the extent possible
and adequately treated. Continual supervision
and enforcement of watershed, land-use, and
wellhead area protection rules and regulations
must be assured.
Disinfection
• The more common chemicals used for the
disinfection of drinking water are chlorine (gas and
hypochlorite), chlorine–ammonia, chlorine dioxide,
and ozone. Chlorine is discussed below; the others
are discussed in relation to the removal or reduction
of objectionable tastes and odors and
trihalomethanes. Ozone and chlorine dioxide are
receiving greater attention as primary disinfectants
and chlorine–ammonia for maintenance of a
residual in the distribution system. Other
disinfectants that may be used under certain
circumstances include UV radiation,* bromine,
iodine, silver, and chlorinated lime.
Gas Chlorinator
• When a dry feed gas chlorinator or a solution feed gas
chlorinator is used, the chlorinator and liquid chlorine
cylinders should be located in a separate gas-tight room
that is mechanically ventilated to provide one air change
per minute, with outside switch and the exhaust
openings at floor level opposite the air inlets at ceiling
level. Exhaust ducts must be separate from any other
ventilating system of ducts and extend to a height and
location that will not endanger the public, personnel, or
property and ensure adequate dispersion. The door to
the room should have a shatter-resistant glass inspection
panel at least 12 in. square, and a chlorine gas mask, or
preferably self-contained breathing apparatus, approved
by the NIOSH, available just outside of the chlorinator
and chlorine cylinder room.
Testing for Residual Chlorine
• The recommended field tests for measuring residual
chlorine in water are the N,N-diethyl-p-
phenylenediamine (DPD) colorimetric and the
stabilized neutral orthotolidine (SNORT)
methods.154 The DPD and amperometric titration
methods are approved by the EPA. In any case, all
tests should be made in accordance with accepted
procedures such as in Standard Methods for the
Examination of Water and Wastewater.
Chlorine Treatment for Operation and
Microbiological Control
• To ensure that only properly treated water is distributed,
it is important to have a competent and trustworthy
person in charge of the chlorination plant. He or she
should keep daily records showing the gallons of water
treated, the pounds of chlorine or quarts of chlorine
solution used and its strength, the gross weight of
chlorine cylinders if used, the setting of the chlorinator,
the time residual chlorine tests made, the results of such
tests, and any repairs or maintenance, power failures,
modifications, or unusual occurrences dealing with the
treatment plant or water system. Where large amounts
of chlorine are needed, the use of ton containers can
effect a saving in cost, as well as in labor, and possibly
reduce chlorine gas leakage, although if a chlorine leak
does occur, it can be of major consequence.
• Laboratory studies by Kelly and Sanderson indicated
that depending on pH level and temperature,
residual chlorine values of greater than 4 ppm, with
5-min contact, or contact periods of at least 4 hours
with a residual chlorine value of 0.5 ppm, are
necessary to inactivate viruses, and that the
recommended standard for disinfection of sewage
by chlorine (0.5 ppm residual after 15-min contact)
does not destroy viruses.
Possible virus removal values by various wastewater
treatment systems are as follows:

• Primary sedimentation 0–55%

• Activated sludge 64–99%
• Contact stabilization 74–95%
• Trickling filters 19–94%d
• Stabilization ponds 92–100%
• Coagulation–flocculation 86–100%
• Chlorine (as final treatment) 99–100%
• Iodine 100% Ozone 100%
• Anaerobic digestion 62–99%
Plain Sedimentation
• Plain sedimentation is the quiescent settling or
storage of water, such as would take place in a
reservoir, lake, or basin, without the aid of
chemicals, preferably for a month or longer,
particularly if the source water is a sewagepolluted
river water. This natural treatment results in the
settling out of suspended solids; reduction of
hardness, ammonia, lead, cadmium, and other
heavy metals; breakdown of organic chemicals and
fecal coliform; removal of color (due to the action of
sunlight); and die-off of pathogenic microorganisms
principally because of the unfavorable temperature,
lack of suitable food, and sterilizing effect of
sunlight.