Semiconductor Devices

A brief review

Dr. K. Fobelets
 Purpose of the course
• Study bipolar devices in more detail
– Diodes and BJTs
– Closer to reality: recombination
– What causes the delays in these devices when
switching?
The most frequently used sentence in
this course will be:

Excess minority carrier

concentration
 Structure
• 1. Lectures : 10 hrs
– Basic principles based on Q&A session
– Recombination and how does it impact the
characteristics
– LONG pn diode – correct and approximated
solutions
– LONG BJT
– Switching of pn diodes and BJTs
• 2. Classes: solving past exam papers
 Review
• Electrons and holes
• Minority and majority carriers
• Energy band diagram
 Free charged carriers in Si
Covalent bond
Intrinsic Si Thermal energy: kT Movement: kT
Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si

Extrinsic Si Extrinsic Si

Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Extrinsic Si B
Si B Si Si Si As Si Si Obtained by doping
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si As

NA ND
p-type n-type
In semiconductors two types of free charged carriers exist: electrons and holes.

Q1: What are holes?

Si Si Si
a) Spherical voids in a semiconductor +
Si Si Si Si
b) A positively charged Si atom that has lost its electron
c) A positively charged particle that is the result of quantum mechanics Si Si

Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si
Si Si
C
The two charged particles describe together the conduction in semiconductors.

Electron e- with charge q=-e

and mass mn = m0 m*n

Hole h+ with charge q=+e

and mass mp = m0 m*p
Intrinsic silicon (Si) has a small number of both free electrons and holes such that ni=pi.
In order to increase the free carrier concentration, the semiconductor can be doped. With
donors ND more electrons are created, with acceptors NA more holes are generated.

Q2: When intrinsic Si is doped with donor atoms, which of the following statements is
correct?

a) n = p = n i = pi
b) n > ni & p < ni
c) n > p > ni
d) p > n > ni

n: electron concentration
p: hole concentration
ni: intrinsic electron concentration
pi: intrinsic hole concentration
B
n > ni & p < ni in an n-type semiconductor.

n-type semiconductor
n = ND
p = ni2/ND

p-type semiconductor
n = ni2/NA
p = NA By heart
The concept of majority carrier and minority carrier is important in semiconductor devices.
Majority carrier is the carrier type in a doped semiconductor with the highest
concentration. Minority carrier is the carrier type with the lowest concentration.

Q3: True or False?

The holes are the majority carriers in a p-type semiconductor (doped with acceptor atoms
NA).
TRUE
p-type semiconductor
p > n
p p
p-type p-type
hole semiconductor electron semiconductor
concentration concentration

n-type semiconductor

n > p
n n
n-type n-type
electron semiconductor hole semiconductor
concentration concentration

MAJORITY CARRIERS MINORITY CARRIERS

 Drift and diffusion
• Two types of carrier movement
– As a result of an electric field → DRIFT
– As a result of a carrier gradient → DIFFUSION
Drift of carriers under influence of
an electric field: E
+ E -

+ E -

J  q  number of carriers  v
J  q  number of carriers  E
Diffusion of carriers due to a carrier
gradient

J  q  diffusion constant  concentration gradient

d
J  qD number of carriers
dx
The purpose of semiconducting devices is to generate a current/voltage in response to an
applied voltage/current. Two different types of current can exist in a semiconductor: drift
and diffusion current. The expression of the total current that can flow in a semiconductor
is given by the drift-diffusion equation:
dn( x)
J n ( x)  e n n( x) E ( x)  eDn
dx
dp( x)
J p ( x)  e p p( x) E ( x)  eDp
dx
(1) (2)
Q4: Which statement is true?

a) Term (1) is drift current and (2) diffusion current

b) Term (2) is drift current and (1) diffusion current
c) Only term (1) can exist in a semiconductor
d) Only term (2) can exist in a semiconductor
A
Drift current is proportional to the carrier concentration and the electric field
Diffusion current is proportional to the carrier gradient.

E(x) Jndrift
Jpdrift
n(x)
Jndiff
p(x) Jpdiff
Motion of free charged carriers in a semiconductor.

Q5: If a p-type semiconductor at room temperature is conducting carriers due to drift,

which of the following motion paths would be followed by the holes?
+ E - + E -

a) c)

(b) (d)
+ E - + E -
B
When carriers move in a semiconductor they are scattered along the
way. This means that they will be accelerated by the electric field (in
this case) and then interact with atoms, impurities, other carriers
that makes them lose some of their kinetic energy = scattering.
Therefore the carriers will travel with an average velocity in
amplitude and direction.

v   E
e

m
Q6: Solve diffusion processes

p+ n p

1. Draw arrows indicating the direction of diffusion of carriers.

2. Identify the type of carriers that is diffusing.
 Solution

p+ n p

Holes

Electrons
 p+ n p

Q7: Why is there no net current while diffusion is happening?

1. Because hole diffusion and electron diffusion cancel each other.

2. Because an internal electric field is built up across each junction
causing drift of holes/electrons that cancel the diffusion of
.holes/electrons.
3. Because holes and electrons diffuse automatically back to where they
came from.
 - E + +E -

p+ n p

Holes Holes
diffusion drift
Electrons Electrons
2. Because an internal electric field is built up across each junction
causing drift of holes/electrons that cancel the diffusion of
.holes/electrons.
 Depletion
NA p-Si ND n-Si
Si

Capacitive effect
Capacitive effect

Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si B
-
Si Si B Si Si Si As+ Si Si Si
B
- Si Si Si Si + Si Si Si Si
As As

+ E - - E +

- +
As : arsenic atom ionised
B : boron atom ionised
 Q8: True - False
Ec
EF

Ev

The position of the Fermi level EF determines the type of the

semiconductor.
 Q9: Multiple choice
Ec
EF

Ev

1. This is the energy band diagram of an n-type semiconductor.

2. This is the energy band diagram of a p-type semiconductor.
3. This is the energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor.
Ec Bottom of conduction band
EF
EG Bandgap. No energy levels in this energy region.
Intrinsic “level”. Is the position of the Fermi level
Ei
EF when the semiconductor is intrinsic.

Ev Top of valence band

Position of Fermi level is determined by the doping type and density
For n-type Si:
  Ec  E F  
n  N C exp 
 k T 
 E  E F   N C N C
exp c  
 kT  n ND
N 
Ec  E F  k T ln  C 
 ND 
 Devices
• A combination of n and p type
semiconductors plus ohmic contacts to
apply the external voltages/currents makes
devices
• When combining a-similar materials
diffusion will occur and as a result an
internal electric field will be built up to an
amount that opposes diffusion current.
 Energy band diagram

e.g.
p-Si – n-Si
p-Si – n-Si – p-Si

It is possible to start from the knowledge on

workfunctions, f and the energy reference:
the vacuum level, Evac. The workfunction is
dependent on the doping concentration!
Evac
Evac

p-Si n-Si
e×fn-Si
e×fp-Si

EF

EF
Evac
Evac

p-Si n-Si
e×fn-Si
e×fp-Si

EF

EF
 Depleted region on both sides
Evac

e  V0  e  f p  Si  fn  Si 
Evac

p-Si e×fp-Si
n-Si
e×fn-Si
Ec

Ec
EF EF
Ev

Ev
 Diffusion and drift can occur at the
A charge packet
same
E
time.

Both also always occur across junctions

 A look at the short pn-diode
PN diode I

p n

p n
E
V p n
Short PN diode
I DIFFUSION

p n

p n
E
V p n
Short PN diode
I DIFFUSION

p n

p n
E
V p n
Short PN diode
I DIFFUSION

Minority carrier concentration

p n How do we find the current?

p n
E
V p n

distance

Linear variation of minority carrier concentration

Apply diffusion current formula to the minority carrier variation
Short PN diode
I

p n

p n

E
p n

Only few carriers can contribute to the current

 Contents of course this year
• Long pn diode
– Introducing the concept of recombination of carriers.
– Switching of the pn diode, where does the delay come
from?

• Bipolar junction transistor

– Internal functioning
– Switching delays
But what happens in a long pn diode?

p n

Short

p n

Long

Ln Lp
Minority carrier diffusion length
In long semiconductors recombination of
the minority carriers will occur whilst
diffusing
Excess holes, p in an n-type semiconductor will recombine
with the large amount of available electrons.
Loss of both carrier type, but felt most in excess
minority carriers. Remember: the amount of majority carriers is
much larger than the excess.
 In long semiconductors recombination of
the minority carriers will occur whilst
diffusing
Excess holes, p in an n-type semiconductor will recombine
with the large amount of available electrons.
Loss of both carrier type, but felt most in excess
minority carriers. Remember: the amount of majority carriers is
much larger than the excess.
Injection of carriers

• Diffusing minority
carriers (e.g. holes)
recombine with majority
carriers (electrons) within
x a diffusion length Lp
Lp
 Generation-recombination
• Generation of carriers and recombination is
continuously happening at the same time
such that the equilibrium carrier
concentrations are maintained.

R=G

Charge neutral
 Recombination - generation
• In case there is an excess carrier
concentration then the recombination rate R
of the excess, will be larger than its
generation rate, G: R>G

When there is a shortage, then G > R

 Recombination - generation
• Simple model: Recombination/generation rate is proportional
to excess carrier concentration.
• Thus no net recombination/generation takes place if the
carrier density equals the thermal equilibrium value.

Recombination of e- in p-type n p  n p0 n p
U n  Rn  Gn  
semiconductor n n
pn  pn0 pn
h+
Recombination of in n-type U p  Rp  Gp  
semiconductor p p
Diffusion, drift and recombination of
carriers

What is the consequence of this recombination on the

characteristics of the pn diode with neutral regions
larger than the diffusion lengths of the minority
carriers?
 In the pn diode the carrier gradient
determines the current thus we have
to find the function p(x) of the
minority carrier concentration.
• Note, reasoning done for p(x). For n(x) analogous approach.
Mathematical description of diffusion
and recombination

Jp(x) Jp (x+Dx)
A x
x x+Dx

p 1 J p ( x)  J p ( x  Dx) p
 
t x  x  Dx q Dx p

Rate of hole Variation of hole Recombination

variation = concentration in + rate
Dx x A/s
Mathematical description of diffusion
and recombination
p 1 J p ( x)  J p ( x  Dx) p
 
t x  x  Dx q Dx p

p( x, t )  1 J p p
Dx  0 :  
t q x  p

p  p0  p = bulk defined + excess concentration

with
p  1 J p p p0  pn0 
ni2
 
t q x  p ND

Jp : total current = drift + diffusion

Neglect drift current (no electric field applied)

Mathematical description of diffusion
and recombination
dp( x)
J p ( x)  eD p
dx

p  1 J p p  2 p p
   Dp 2 
t q x  p x  p
p  p0  p = bulk defined+ excess concentration
p  2p p
with
 Dp  ni2
p0  pn0 
t x 2
p ND
 Solve equation in steady state
p
0
t p
 2p p p
  2
x 2
D p p L p Diffusion length Dp
contact
x  X n  p  0
Boundary conditions:
x  0  p  Dp 0 Xn x
 x 
General solution of 2nd 
order differential equation: p( x)  C1 sinh   C2 

 Lp 
Dp  x  Xn 
p( x)  sinh  
 Xn   Lp 
sinh    
 Lp 
 
 Too complicated
• Short approximation • Long approximation

Xn << Lp Xn >> Lp

Dp  x  Xn 
p( x)  sinh  
 Xn   Lp 
sinh    
 Lp 
 

LINEAR EXPONENTIAL
 Short semiconductor
• Xn ≤ Lp carriers do not have time to recombine (=∞) !
• Taking linear approximation.

pn(x) pn(x)

p’n pn(x)= pn0+ Dp (1–x/Xn)

pn(x)

Dp NO recombination : variation
of the excess carrier
pn0 concentration linear

0 Xn x Contact imposes pn(Xn)=0

 Diffusion and recombination
• Xn >> Lp carriers do have time to recombine (t<∞) !
• Taking exponential approximations

pn(x)

pn(x)
Dp   x   X n 
p’n pn(x)=pn0+ 
exp 



 exp 


 X n    L p   L p 
1  exp  
 Lp 
Dp  
pn(x)

When recombination occurs

and Xn >> Lp variation of the
pn0 excess carrier concentration is
exponential
0 Lp Xn x
Contact imposes pn(Xn)=0
 pn still too complex for quick
calculations

• Take really extreme case

• Xn >>> Lp or Xn → ∞

Dp   x   X n   x 
pn(x)= 
exp    exp   Dp exp  
 
 X n    L p   L p   Lp 
  
1  exp  
 Lp 
 

Note: I and Q of both expressions of pn(x) for Xn → ∞ the same

 x 
I for pn(x)= Dp exp   same as for linear approximation when Xn=Lp
 Lp 
 
 Diffusion and recombination
• Xn >>> Lp carriers do have time to recombine (t<∞) !
• Taking exponential approximations

pn(x)
p’n pn(x)=pn0+Dp e-x/Lp
When recombination occurs
Dp
pn(x)

and Xn → ∞ variation of the

excess carrier concentration is
pn0 exponential

0 Lp ∞ x Imposes pn(Xn)=0
 SHORT ↔ LONG
approximation
Lp=200 nm, Xn=20nm Lp=Xn=200nm
pn(x) pn(x)
Correct solution
Exponential solution
Linear solution
Boundary of short

Short

x x

Lp=200 nm, Xn=400nm Lp=200 nm, Xn=1000nm

pn(x) pn(x)

Long
Intermediate

x x
• Calculation of currents in pn diode with
neutral regions larger than the diffusion
length, using the long semiconductor
approximation
→
• Exponential variation of the excess minority
carrier concentration.
 Carrier injections: forward bias
e-diff
p n • Carrier injection across
h+diff junction
-wp 0 wn V 
n' p  n p0 exp 
 VT 
np(-x) pn(x) V 
p'n  pn0 exp 
n’p  VT 
p’n
• Creates minority carrier
np0 pn0 concentration gradients
-x x
np0=ni2/NA & pp=NA
pn0= ni2/ND & nn=ND
 Carrier injections: reverse bias

e-drift
p n • Minority carriers are swept
+
h drift across junction V<0
-wp 0 wn V 
n' ' p  n p0 exp 

 VT 
np(-x) pn(x) V 
p' 'n  pn0 exp 

 VT 
np0 pn0
n’’p
p’’n
-x x
• Small amount of minority
carriers → small current
 Thus
e-diff
p n
h+diff
-wp 0 wn
np(-x) pn(x)
n’p
Dnp p’n
Dpn
np0
pn0
-x x
(  x ) ( x )

pn ( x)  Dpn e
Lp
n p ( x)  Dn p e Ln

Dnp = np0 (eeV/kT -1) Dpn = pn0 (eeV/kT -1)

 Two methods to calculate current
-wp 0 wn I
x

Slope pn
np
Qn
Dnp Dpn Qp

-x 0 0 x

1. Gradient excess carrier concentration

2. Re-supply of recombined excess charge
1. Excess carrier concentration gradient

Maximum diffusion currents at the edges of the transition region

np Slope pn

h+
e- Dnp Dpn

-x 0 0 x
-wp wn
In = e A Dn dnp/dx Ip = -e A Dp dpn/dx
= max @ x=0 = max @ x=0
 1. Excess carrier concentration gradient
Fill in expression for excess carrier concentration

e- h+
( x)
  eV  
( x)
  eV  
pn ( x)  pn0  exp   1  e
Lp
n p ( x)  n p0  exp   1  e Ln

  kT    
kT  
(  x ) ( x )
  eV     eV  
dpn0  exp   1  e
Lp
dn p0  exp   1  e
Ln

In  
max
diff  eADn   kT   Ip  
max
diff  eADp   kT  
dx
dx

x 0 x 0

 
I n max
diff 
eAn p0 Dn   eV  
 exp   1  
I p max
diff 
eApn0 D p   eV  
 exp   1
Ln   kT   Lp   kT  

In Ip
 Changing gradient!
→
Changing diffusion current density

p n

Itot
Ip In
Itot=In + Ip

In Ip

(  x) ( x)

In  
x
diff 
eAnp0 Dn   eV  
 exp   1  e
Ln
Ip  
x
diff 
eApn0 D p   eV  
 exp   1  e
Lp

Ln   kT   Lp   kT  
Ip   I
x
drift tot  In  
x
diff In   I
x
drift tot  Ip  
x
diff
 2. Re-supply of recombined excess carriers
-wp 0 wn I
x

np pn
Ip
np = Dnp e-(-x)/Ln
In pn = Dpn e-(x)/Lp
np0 Qn Dnp Dpn
Qp pn0
-x 0 0 x

Excess carrier charge Q recombines every  seconds (carrier life time).

For steady state Q has to be re-supplied every  seconds → current
2. Re-supply of recombined excess carriers
Charge – minority carrier life time ratio

np pn
Ip
np = Dnp e-(-x)/Ln
In
Dpn pn = Dpn e-(x)/Lp
np0 Qn Dnp
Qp pn0
-x 0 0 x
-wp 0 wn
Charge = area under excess carrier concentration: integrate
-∞ and + ∞ are the contacts: excess charge = 0!
0 ∞
Qn = -e A ∫-∞ np dx Qp = e A ∫0 pn dx
In = Qn/n = e A Ln Dnp /n Ip = Qp/p = e A Lp Dpn /p
 Total current
Same equation as short diode with
length exactly equal to the
minority carrier diffusion lengths

• I = Ip(0) + In(0) = e A (Dp pn0 /Lp + Dn np0/Ln )(eeV/kT -1)

• I = I0 (eeV/kT -1)

• With I0 = e A (Dp pn0/Lp + Dn np0/Ln)

Reverse bias current
 SHORT ↔ LONG
approximation error on current calculation:
ratio of currents

10
9
8 Error on linear and
7
exponential approximation
same when Xn=Lp
6
Ireal/Iapprox

Ireal/Iexp
5
Ireal/Ilin
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Xn/Lp
• Non-idealities in the pn diodes

Log(I) ideal
real
c)
b)
a)

V
(a) Low voltage: low injection of carriers

Log(I) ideal
real

a)

V
(c) High voltage: high injection of carriers

Log(I) ideal
real
c) n’p ≈ pp
p’n ≈ nn

  eV   a) n=2
I tot  I s  e nkT   1 b) n=1
 
  c) n=2
(d) Higher currents

Log(I) ideal
real
d)
Current determined by resistance

V
 Switching of p-n diodes
• When a p-n diode is forward biased, excess carrier
concentrations exists at both sides of the depletion region
edge.
• To switch the diode from forward to off or reverse bias,
this excess carrier concentration needs to be removed.
• The transients resulting from the time it takes to remove
the excess carriers will lead to the equivalent capacitance.

np
p pn n

-wp 0 wn
 Switching off
e-
h+ i
np on
p pn n Steady state snap shots

off
-wp 0 wn
0 t

p n
To
Howthis?
do we go from this:
p+pno -wp 0 wn
Excess carrier concentration
Dpn
pno
x Off: NO current flows!!!
 Variation of the excess carrier concentration
as a function of time.
p(x,t)
p  1 J p p
 
t q x  p
Relationship for charge Qp
contact
p ( x, t ) eA contact J p contact
p
eA  t
dx   
e 0 x
dx   eA
p
dx
0 0

dQp (t ) eA eA Q p (t )
 Jp  Jp 
dt e contact e 0 p
dQp (t ) Q p (t )
 Ip 
dt p
 Transient during switching off
Recombination term
i(t)= I + dQ/dt = Q/ + dQ/dt Charge depletion term (or buildup)

Excess charge due to charge injection at any instance of time

Average lifetime of minority carriers

For switch from on to off:

At t<0 → Ion=Ion (Von)

At t≥0 → Ioff = 0 (Voff = 0) t>0
And at t=-0 Q(0)=Ion  0 = Q/ + dQ/dt
At t→∞ Q(∞)=0 Q(t)=Ion e-t/

Since no current in “off”, charge has to disappear by

recombination!
 Transient during switching off
variation of the excess carrier concentration as a function of time

Qp(t)=eA∫p(x,t)dx=Ippe-t/p

p Variation in time
Dpn gradient→ i≠0

i=0→gradient=0

t=0
x

A voltage, vd will exists across the diode as long as charge remains

p(x,t)=Dp(vd(t)) e-x/Lp
 Revision
• When a pn diode switches, the excess minority
carrier concentration needs to change. The removal
of the excess minority carrier concentration causes
the delay in the pn diode.
• The variation of the excess carrier concentration as
a function of time given by:

Q p (t ) dQp (t )
i p (t )  
p dt
 ON-OFF (open circuit)
take: p+n → Itot ≈ Ip

Q p (t ) dQp (t )
p+
vd
n i p (t )  
p dt
Ip

 V Q p (0 )
@ t  0; i p (0 )  I ON  
R p
R
@ t  0; i p (0)  0
Q p (t ) dQp (t )
t=0 0 
p dt
V
 t 
Q p (t )  I ON p exp 
 p 
 
 OFF (open circuit) → ON
take: p+n → Itot ≈ Ip
@ t  0; i p (0  )  0; Q p (0  )  0
Q p (t ) dQp (t )
@ t  0  ; i p (0  )  I ON 
V i p (t )  
R p dt
Q p (t ) dQp (t )
vd I ON  
p+ n p dt
dQp (t )   p I ON  Q p (t )
Ip 
dt p
dQp (t ) dt

Q p (t )   p I ON p integrate
R

ln Q p (t )   p I ON  t
0

t
p

t=0   
ln Q p (t )   p I ON  ln   p I ON    t
p
V  Q p (t )   p I ON 
ln   t
   p I ON  p
 
 t    
Q p (t )   p I ON   p I ON exp     p I ON 1  exp  t 
 p    p 
    
 Reverse recovery transient
Switch the diode from forward to reverse bias
e-
h+ i
np on
p pn n Steady state snap shots

-wp 0 wn e-
0 t h+
off

To this?
How do we go from this:
-wp
p Excess carrier concentration 0 wn

Dpn
Dpn 0 Reverse bias current flows!!!
x
 Transients when switching to reverse bias
i(t) R e(t)
If≈E/R I
e(t) E If
t
p n Ir≈-E/R
-E
V
p
If → gradient≠0
-Ir
Ir → gradient≠0 i(t)
t
x v(t)
t
t
-E
 Storage delay time: tsd
If i(t)

v(t)

-Ir
tsd
Time required for the stored charge to disappear

tsd = minority carrier ln(1 + If/Ir)

 Calculate storage delay time: tsd

Q p (t ) dQp (t )
IF i(t) i p (t )  
p dt

v(t) @ t  0  ; i ( 0  )  I F  Q (0  )   p I F

t @ t  0  ; i (0  )   I R X
 Q(0  )   p I R!
@ t  t sd ; Q(t sd )  0

-IR
0  t  t sd  i p (t )   I R
tsd Q p (t ) dQp (t )
 IR  
p dt
Calculated storage delay time: tsd
Q p (t ) dQp (t )
 IR  
p dt
IF i(t)   p I R  Q p (t ) dQp (t )

p dt
 dt dQp (t )

v(t) p  I p R  Q p (t )  integrate
t t
 ln  I (t ) 
t
 Qp

p R 0
p

t
-IR p
  
 ln  p I R  Q p (t )  ln  p I R  Q p (0) 
tsd 
  t   p I R  Q p (t )
exp  


  p   pIR  pIF
  
 t 

Q p (t )   p I R   p I R   p I F 
exp 
 p 
 
Calculated storage delay time: tsd

IF i(t)
 t 

Q p (t )   p I R   p I R   p I F 
exp 
 p


 
v(t) t  t sd
t  t sd 
 
0   p I R   p I R   p I F exp  
 p 
 
 IR   I  I F  
t sd   p ln     p ln  R 
 I R  I F  
-IR
 IR 
tsd
 After: tsd

IF i(t) Q p (t sd )  0
vd  0
v(t)
t Build-up of
depletion region
tbu  RCdepl
-IR vd   E
tsd
 Small signal equivalent circuit
• Junction capacitance • Diffusion capacitance

• Due to depletion region • Due to charge storage effects

np
p n p pn n

w -wp 0 wn
• Cj = e A/w • Cd = dQ/dV = d (I )/dV
= e/kT I 
• w function of bias
→ C voltage variable capacitance

• Important in reverse bias • Important in forward bias

 Equivalent conductances
• Diffusion conductance • Series resistance rs

• Due to n and p region +

• gd = dI/dV = e/kT I0 eeV/kT contact resistance
≈ e/kT I
• Vd = Vappl – rs I
• Slope of the current voltage
characteristic in forward
bias rd
rs
Cj

Cd Only linear circuit elements present

Large signal equivalent circuit

Rs

C Reverse bias: depletion capacitance

Forward bias: diffusion capacitance

Non-linear circuit elements present

 Conclusions

• The characteristics in a pn diode are based

upon excess minority carrier diffusion.
– Excess carrier concentrations are being formed
by injection of carriers across the junction.
– The gradient of the excess minority carrier
concentration at the junction determines the
magnitude of the current.
– Delay times are due to the storage of excess
minority charge in the layers.
 Revision
• When recombination is taken into account, the
excess minority carrier concentration reduces while
diffusing through the neutral regions of the diode.
• The variation of the excess carrier concentration is
then given by:

p  2p p
 Dp 
t x 2
p
Lifetime of minority
carrier holes
Revision

• The steady state solution for the excess minority

carrier concentration is then:

Dp  x  Xn 
p( x)  sinh  
 Xn   Lp 
sinh    
 Lp 
 

• This is considered too complex for quick

calculations and approximations are used in the
case of a short or long neutral region.
Revision

• Short: Xn ≤ Lp linear

pn(x) pn(x)

p’n pn(x)= pn0+ Dp (1–x/Xn)

pn(x)

Dp

pn0

0 Xn x Contact imposes pn(Xn)=0

Revision

• Long: Xn >>> Lp exponential

Dp   x   X n 
pn(x)=pn0+ 
exp    exp  
 
 X n    L p   L p 
1  exp   
pn(x)  Lp 
 
p’n
pn(x)=pn0+Dp e-x/Lp
Dp
pn(x)

pn0

0 Lp ∞ x Imposes pn(Xn)=0
Revision

• These approximation make some errors in the calculation

of the current and the charge stored in the neutral regions.
• However we will see that:

1. I and Q for simplified and non-simplified exponential variation

of pn(x) for Xn → ∞ is the same
 x 
2. I for pn(x) = Dp exp   is same as for linear approximation
when Xn=Lp  Lp 
 Errors on current
1400
Lp=20 nm
1200
Current (a.u.)

1000
Series1
Correct
800
Exponential
Series2
600 Linear
Series3
400
200
0
20 40 2004
101 2 3
Xn (nm)

Short = good approximation up to Xn = Lp

Long = good approximation up to Xn > 5 ×Lp