05.signal Encoding Techniques Part 1

SIGNAL ENCODING TECHNIQUES
WHAT TO ENCODE
 Digital Data, Digital Signal: less complex and less expensive than
other forms
 Analog Data, Digital Signal: permits the use of modern digital
transmission and switching equipment
 Digital Data, Analog Signal: useful for some transmission media, such
as optical fiber
 Analog Data, Analog Signal: analog data in electrical form can be
transmitted as baseband signals easily and cheaply
DIGITAL DATA, DIGITAL SIGNAL
 Form: pulses  signal element
 Binary data are transmitted by encoding each data bit into signal
elements
 There is a one-to-one correspondence between bits and signal
elements
 Unipolar: all signal elements are in the same algebraic sign
 Polar: signs (+ or -) represent a signal level
 Data Signal Rate/Data Rate: in bits per second
 Form: pulses  signal element
 Bit Duration: 1/R (bit rate)
 Mark: bit 1
 Space: bit 0
 Modulation rate is expressed in baud or signal elements per second
 If other factors held constant, the following statements are true for
digital signal encoding:
 An increase in data rate increases bit error rate (BER)
 An increase in SNR decreases bit error rate
 An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in data rate
 Techniques:
 Evaluating those techniques:
 Signal Spectrum: check if DC component is present, or magnitude is
concentrated in the middle of the spectrum
 Clocking: check if synchronization is done automatically
 Error detection: check if errors can be detected automatically
 Signal Interference and Noise Immunity: performance is usually
expressed in terms of a BER
 Cost and complexity: the higher the signaling rate to achieve a given data
rate, the greater the cost
 Key Terms:
 Encoding are usually start by its initial condition (0V, +V, or -V)
 Encoding a bit changes in these two conditions:
 At bit start
 Differential: only changes by transition in bits (0 to 1 or 1 to 0)
NONRETURN TO ZERO (NRZ)
 The most common, and easiest, way to transmit digital signals
First Variant:
 Logic 0 = 0
 Logic 1 = +V
Second Variant:
 Logic 0 = +V
 Logic 1 = 0
 Example 1: Encode using NRZ first variant this bitstream: 10011010 at
0V start.
 Example 1: Encode using NRZ first variant this bitstream: 10011010 at
0V start.
 Solution:
 Example 2: Encode using NRZ second variant this bitstream: 10011010
at 0V start.
 Example 2: Encode using NRZ second variant this bitstream: 10011010
at 0V start.
 Solution:
 Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
 First Variant:
 Logic 0 = -V
 Logic 1 = +V
 Second Variant:
 Logic 1 = -V
 Logic 0 = +V
 Example of NRZ-L:
 Example 3: Encode using NRZ-L first variant this bitstream: 10011010
at 0V start.
 Example 3: Encode using NRZ-L first variant this bitstream: 10011010
at 0V start.
 Solution:
 Nonreturn to Zero-Invert on ones (NRZ-I):
 A form of differential encoding
 Logic 0 = no change from start condition
 Logic 1 = change from start to opposite state
 Examples: 0V to +V, +V to 0V, +V to –V, -V to +V
 Nonreturn to Zero-Invert on ones (NRZ-I):
 Example 4: Encode using NRZ-I this bitstream: 10011010 at 0V start given
two levels 0V to +V.
 Example 4: Encode using NRZ-I this bitstream: 10011010 at 0V start
given two levels 0V to +V.
 Solution:
MULTILEVEL BINARY
 Utilizes more than one level per bit
 Bipolar AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) scheme
 Logic 0 = 0V
 Logic 1 = alternate between +V and –V, depending on the previous
level of logic 1 present
MULTILEVEL BINARY
 Example 5: Encode using Bipolar AMI this bitstream: 10011010 at 0V start
given first logic 1 is +V.
MULTILEVEL BINARY
given first logic 1 is +V.
 Solution:
MULTILEVEL BINARY
given first logic 1 is -V.
MULTILEVEL BINARY
given first logic 1 is -V.
 Solution:
MULTILEVEL BINARY
 Pseudoternary: Opposite of Bipolar AMI
 Logic 0 = alternate between +V and –V, depending on the previous
level of logic 1 present
 Logic 1 = 0V
MULTILEVEL BINARY
 Example 7: Encode using Psedoternary this bitstream: 10011010 at 0V
start given first logic 0 is +V.
MULTILEVEL BINARY
 Example 7: Encode using Psedoternary this bitstream: 10011010 at 0V
start given first logic 0 is +V.
 Solution:
BIPHASE
 Manchester Code: instead of changing at bit start, changes are made
during the middle of the bit duration (midbit)
 Logic 0: transition levels from high-to-low (e.g. +V to 0V or +V to –
V)
 Logic 1: transition levels from low-to-high (e.g. 0V to +V or –V to
+V)
BIPHASE
 Example 8: Encode using Manchester code this bitstream: 10011010 at 0V
start given two levels 0V and +V.
BIPHASE
 Example 8: Encode using Manchester code this bitstream: 10011010 at 0V
start given two levels 0V and +V.
 Solution:
BIPHASE
 Differential Manchester Code: similar to Manchester Code, but
presence of Logic 0 changes transition rather than a fixed transition
between logic
 Logic 0: change transition (from low-to-high to high-to-low and vice
versa)
 Logic 1: no transition (remains at low-to-high or high-to-low given
start condition)
BIPHASE
 Differential Manchester Code: similar to Manchester Code, but
presence of Logic 0 changes transition rather than a fixed transition
between logic
BIPHASE
 Example 9: Encode using Differential Manchester code this bitstream:
10011010 at 0V start given two levels 0V and +V.
BIPHASE
 Example 9: Encode using Differential Manchester code this bitstream:
10011010 at 0V start given two levels 0V and +V.
 Solution:
BIPHASE
 Advantages of Biphase encoding vs. NRZ:
 Synchronization: predictable transition during each bit time, the receiver
can synchronize on that transition; thus, biphase codes are known as self-
clocking codes
 No DC component: Biphase codes have no dc component
 Error Detection: absence of an expected transition can be used to detect
errors
SCRAMBLING TECHNIQUES
 Specialized technique in encoding that assures:
 No DC component
 No long sequences of zero-level line signals
 No reduction in data rate
 Error-detection capability
 Specialized technique in encoding that assures:
 No DC component
 No long sequences of zero-level line signals
 No reduction in data rate
 Error-detection capability
 Bipolar with 8-zeroes substitution (B8ZS)
 Based on Bipolar AMI
 Avoid long streams of zeroes to be misinterpreted as loss of signal,
and thus will have synchronization losses
 Added rules to Bipolar AMI:
 If 8 zeroes are detected (00000000), and the last voltage detected is
positive, then 8 zeroes are replaced with 000+-0-+
 If 8 zeroes are detected (00000000), and the last voltage detected is
negative, then 8 zeroes are replaced with 000-+0+-
 Example 10: Encode using B8ZS this bitstream: 11000000001given
first logic 1 is +V.
first logic 1 is +V.
 Solution:
first logic 1 is -V.
first logic 1 is -V.
 Solution:
 High Density Bipolar-3 Zeroes (HDB3) code
 Based on Bipolar AMI
 Replaces strings of 4 zeroes into sequences containing one or two
pulses, thus adding a code violation in order to detect the string of 0’s
 If 4 zeroes are detected (0000), if last pulse is +, and total number of
pulses before is odd, then replace 4 zeroes with 000+
 If 4 zeroes are detected (0000), if last pulse is +, and total number of
pulses before is even, then replace 4 zeroes with -00-
 If 4 zeroes are detected (0000), if last pulse is -, and total number of
pulses before is odd, then replace 4 zeroes with 000-
 If 4 zeroes are detected (0000), if last pulse is -, and total number of
pulses before is even, then replace 4 zeroes with +00+
 Example 12: Encode using HDB3 this bitstream: 110100001given first
logic is +V.
logic is +V.
 Solution:
logic is -V.
logic is -V.
 Solution:
logic is -V.
logic is -V.
 Solution:
logic is +V.
logic is +V.
 Solution:

05.signal Encoding Techniques Part 1

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SIGNAL ENCODING TECHNIQUES

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