Philippine History Halili

Philippine Copyright, 2004
by Rex BookStore, Inc.

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Philippine History
First Edition 2004
ISBN 13: 978-971-2&3934-9
Classification: Textbook (04-SS-00003)
.
REPRINTED: SEPTEMBER 2008
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Materyales na naka·copyright
Knowing Philippine History
1 • · /:4
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1. Understand.in. Histor ...................................................1..

2. SourcesofHisto ..........................................4...
3. Unbistorical Data ...................................,.,n,,,••,...... ................. 8
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Cha ter Test No.1.................................................................13
1. How the Earth Was in the Be· .............................. 16

2. Geolo ical Foundation ......................................................19
4. h and Resources ................................................22

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5. Coun 's Climate........................3.0....

6. The Fili ino Peo le ..........................................................3..0
7. Theories on the Ori in of Fili inos........................... ...... 34
Cha ter Test No. 2....................................................................... 36
1. Cultural Evolution of the Earl

2. Traditional Fili ino Communities ..................................5.5
Cha ter Test No. 3..................................................................65
X•l•l•l
. --..t.-' r',. -.:.,._•,._ ·:-
'.r/..,4, .: ,::-,:-., : . : :-.. ···-·-.:......
anishEra
1. In Search of New I.ands ,.........................................,,....69

2. Ma ellan's New Route to the East................................... 70
3. Rediscove ines........................................7. 2
4. The S anish Con uest of the J s d s ..........................78
5. Towards the anizatiol) of the Natives •••••••••••••••••••86
•
6. Chinese in e Pl)ili m es······························· 97.
7. More Euro in·. tlie Isla.ncls.......................................100
Cha terTestN o.4.....•....•...•.....•.....................1.Q.4.
-?-"-- -, , _..... :..•,: '·:

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e for R i g bt!i a nd F e4om
11.""$:l· :: • • • _• · ,• • • ·• • . _
1. RevoJt of L a k a n d u l ang Sµlaygum ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••110

2. .
a Revolt . ............. .. ...... ....•.110
3. TheTondoCo ••••••••••••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••• 111
4. Ma alat's Revolt......................................................... ..... 112

5. Revoltofthe I o ro ts ... ............. .......................................... .112
6. Revolt of the Irra as........•. .•.....•. ...................................... 112
7.Revolt of Tamblot ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••1•1••3•
8. Baokaw's Revolt ............:....,..,..,.,....................................113
9. The Revolt of Ladia ,,,,,,,,,,,,,., ,.,,,,.,,,,,,,.,,,,,,,,,,.,, ....,..,, 114 ..
••••••• • • • ••••••••••••••• ••••••••• •••••••••• •••
11. Sumoro 's Revolt ........................ ..................................... 115

12. Mania o's Revolt ...........................................................1..1. 5
13. Andres Malon 's Revolt................................................116
14. The Revolt of Gu.ma os ........................................,..........117
15. Revolt of Pedro Almazan ..........,......•.•,,.,. ..........,,..,.,. 117
, , ,
16. Ta ar 's Revolt .............·.....................................................1. 18

17. Da 's Revolt ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••118
18. Silan 's Revolt ................................................................... 119
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··················································...;.· ·· 120
. .. ... ........ ................. ... ...... ....... ............ 121
21. Revolt in Defense of the Spanish Constih1tiori ............ 121
22. Revolt of the Ba ot Brothers·..............:............................122
23. Reli ·ous Revolt of Hermane Pule ...............................122
.. . ..................... ....... ............ ................. 12 3
25. The Rise of Fili ino Nationalism ................................... 127
26 . Pro a anda Movement ................................................... 132
2 7. The K.ati unan ...................................:............................. 137
28. Re·volution of 1896....................................,...,.................142
29. R.iva lll the Kati unan ................................................1.47
30. The Biak- na- Bato Re ublic .............................'............. 151
31. The S anish-American· war ..........................................153
32. Fili ino-American Collaboration ................................ 155
Cha ter Test No. 5...................................... ..................... ... ........ 158
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1. Proclamation of Philippine Independence ................. 162
.•...•.• .•..•.•......... .
3. The Malolos Re ublic ..................................................... 165
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Cha terTes tNo .6 ····························································-·······170
7 The American Rule
1. War of Philippine Independence from the U.S. ........... 174

2. AGovernment under America....................................1..79
3. The American Legacy ...................................................... 188
4. Phili ine Inde endent Church .................................... 192
5. The Colorums ..................................................................193
6. Land Tenure System...................................................... 195
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7. The First Labor Groups ...................................................196
8. The Communist Party of the Philippines ....................1. 98
9. Sakdalism....................................1.9..9.....
Chapter Test No. 7.....................................................................201
1. The T. ransition .............. ..................................................... 208

2. 'Decade of Unrest .............................................................. 211
3. Entry of Japanese Imperial Forces ................................212
Chapter Test No. 8 ..................................................................... 220
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-. . 9 ;, ! k'!!. eseOccupation
1. Japanese Martial Lclw ...................................................... 223
2. Life During the Wartime Years .......................................225
3. Reforming the Philippine Government ........................229
4.The Second Republic of the Philippines .......................230 5.
Resistance and Restoration ............................................ 235
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Chapter Test No. 9.....................................................................245
1. Roxas Administration (1946-48) .....................................250

2. Quirino Administration (1948-53)..................................254
3. Magsaysay Administration (1953-57) ............................ 258
4. Garcia Administration (1957-61) .................................... 261
5. Macapagal Administration (1961-65) ............................ 262
6. Marcos Administration (1965-1986) ............................... 265
7. Aquino Administration (1986-1992) .............................. 279
8. Ramos Administration (1992-1998) ...............................283
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9. Estrada Administration (1998-2001)............................... 287

10. ArroyoAdministration(2001-present).......................... 298
Chapter Test No. 10.................................................................3.06
References .................................................................................. 317
Index .,•.....•••.................. 321
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,...................••
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motives. The struggle to maintain life is the most enduring

motivation for any human activity.
To cite an instance, the intensification of inter-island contacts
and the increasing specializationin craftsmanship by early dwellers
were brought about by economic consideration. Centuries o.f trad e
and personal relations with Southeast Asian neighbors led to the
enrichment of Filipino lifeand culture. As more dwellers traded with
foreign merchants, influences in the field of commerce, science,
religion, language and the arts became more evident as they were
transmitted to other members of the society.
Another example is the Spanish colonial era. It has been said
that the three ptjmary motives for vastexploration of lands were for
God, gold and glory, but the main incentive was for economic
reasons. Colonies are important sources of raw materials and
opportunities for investment. Spain was at the height of its power
in the 16th century since it exercised political and economic control
in its several colonies. ·
The Communist Manifesto written by Marx which contains the
statement of principles of the Communist League, embodies the
materialist concept of historyor historical materialisQ:t. The Manifesto
states that the historyof society is a historyof struggles between the
ruling class and the oppressed masses. This is based on the theory of
scientific socialevolution of Marx, wherein he stated that when society
was still primitive, there was social equilibrium but with the
introduction of new ideas and tools of doing things, man became
greatly concerned with material wealth. This led to a class struggle
between the workers (proletariat) and the capitalists (bourgeoisie).
From these premises, Marx concluded that thecapitalist class would
beoverthrown by th.e working class through revolution and replaced
by a classless society. ·
Another approach to historical studies is the method of
historiography developed by Fernand Braudel (1902-1985),
considered the father of historical structuralism. According to
Braudel, to achieve a " total history," all aspects of man's past are to
be integrated. This new approach involves the study of history in its
total view made possibleby examining tt:te circumstances underlying
such political, economic, social, and culhJfal events.
. .
Philippine history is a people's l'\istory. As defined by Renato
Constantino, history is "the recorded struggle of people for ever
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increasing d o m and·fornewer and higher realization of the

human person." It is not about the story of man as the individual,
but man as the associated man. Man interacts with nature and with
other men, thus consciously changing his own perspective and to
some extent, the system of environment.
Based on Constantino's supposition that Philippine history is a
story of struggle, the study has o be reassessed with a nationalist
pe pective in theinterest of o b j :vity. This is to allow the modem
Filipino to form a clear picture of his ancestors' conditions and
sentiments from the pointof viewof Filipino writers to correct some
historical impressions made by colonial historiography.
History is not merely· lne work of heroes and great men as
elucidated by Constantino if1his book, The Philippines: A Past
Revisited. He pointed out that the masses of individuals as well as
the social forces generated by collective lives and struggles have to
be included. Men must struggle together to survive the exigencies
of natural or social forces intervening their development. The
associated man, as part of the society, through their collective lives
make history. Without a society, history is highly improbable.
Constantino further mentioned that history is not necessarily
presenting a long, unbroken chainof events. It illustrates movement ·
of people and ideasover timeandspace. They may even be in conflict
with one another. It is now the task of the historian to weave
particular events into a total view so that these experiences can be
summed up and analyzed.
Thus, the study of history can setve as a guide to present and
succeeding generations in facing the challenges of the times. By
projecting the people's aspirations, a people's history will enable us
to grasp the direction of the country's development and identify the
factors that impede real progress. Truly, the need for a real peoµIe's
history becomes more urgent as we Filipinossearch for truly Filipino
solutions to the problems besetting our country.
2. Sources of History _
Sources of information provide the evidence from which the
historianobtains factsabout thepast. In writing history, the historian
not only relies on past thoughts rather reenacts it in the context of
a·n a lyzing the documents and other records left. This is an
indispensable condition in the quest for his orical facts.
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Sources of history may be classified as primary and secondary.
Primary sources are those that have witnessed the event that took
placeor haveb partof the incident being studied. These include
written records (e.g. narratives, manuscripts, public documents,
letters, diaries), fossils, artifacts and testimony from livingwitnesses.
On the otherhand,secondary sources havenot beenpartof the event
being considered such as magazines, newspapers, pall\phlets,
typescripts, and articles written about the
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primary sources.
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Prehistory, a term given by 19 century French scholars, covers
the pasthumanexperiences prior to theexistence of written records.
The basic source of prehistory is archaeology, which is a sub
discipline of anthropology (i.e., .the study of all p e c t s of human
life and culture). Archaeology is the s t u d y of past cultures.
Archaeologistsstudy artifacts (material equipment madeby people
of the past like tools, pottery, and jewelry) and fossils (preserved
remains of plants, animals, and peopleof a remote geological past).
Archaeological excavation refers to the systeinatic recovery and
study o-fthese pieces of material evidence.,
Archaeology gives us an idea how things might nave looked
like at a particular time. Cultural artifacts may be looked at as
concrete expressions of the ancient settlers' way in dealing with the
problem of adaptation to the environment. Their achievements in
material and social culture show much of their behavior, values,
d beliefs as well as their intellectual maturity.
Unfortunately, the reconstructionof Philippine prehistory will
always be incomplete. Many of the objects recovered hav e
disintegrated over time. Materials like woqd, barks of trees, and
clothing decompose easily particularly in a tropical climate such as
ours. Devices madeof stone,claysoil,metal and the like,can survive
most likely the society that create_d it_and thus, be presently known
through the efforts of the archaeologists.
Early archaeological undertakings in the Philippines began with
the first major expedition in 1881by a Frenchman, Alfred Marche in
the island of Marinduque and othersitesinCentral Philippines. Most
of his collections are now with the Musee de l; hoinme in Paris, and
some in Madrid. There were also sporadic finds and pot-hunting
activities in various parts of the archipelago priqr to this major
archaeologicalexcavation. Feodor Jagor, a German traveler, reported
having encountered a priest in Naga, Camarines Sur who collected
artifacts from ancient graveyards.
5
Dr. Antonio de Morga, in his Sucesos de Las Islas Filipinas
(Historical Events of the Philippine Islands), described the ancient
artifacts that were recovered by farmers in Luzon! particularly in
Ilocos, Pangasinan, Pampanga, and Manila. These wereclay vessels
of dark brown color and some marked with characters. These items
are no longer being manufactured in the islands.
Jose Rizal, the country's foremost herowas noted to havefound
ground and polished stone tools during his exile in Dapitan,
Zamboanga del Norte.
The second major archaeological exploration was carried out
by Carl Guthe from the University of Michigan from 1922 to 1925.
With his team, they conducted several test-digs in Palawan, Bohol,
Northern Mindanao and other places in Central Philippines. The
purpose of this Michigan archaeological expedition was to collect
Chinese ceramics exported to the Philippines from China, to look
into theearly Filipino-Chinese-relationship. The collection, resulting
from the excavation, consisted·of more than 30 cubic tons of
prehistoric artifacts. Theyare now keptat the University of Michigan.
From 1926 to the outbreak of th·e Second World War, much of
the archaeological discoveries were done by Henry Otley Beyer
(1883-1966) born in Edgewood, Iowa who had married Lingayu
Gambuk, the 15 year-old dau@.t rof a powerful Ifugaochief in 1910.
The discovery of a major archaeological site in Novaliches in
1926, resulting from the construction of a dam for Manila's water
supply, was Beyer's first artjtaeological research in the country. In
1947, Beyer published the Outline Review of Philippine Archaeology by
Islands and Provinces, a pioneering :research activity in Philippine
prehistory.
.
Larry Wilson, a mining prospector, assisted Beyer in the
exploration of numerous Pleistocene sites in Northern Luzon. It was
Beyer who first disclosed the importance of Palawan in the search
for early man in the Philippines.
All over the archipelago, the fossilized remains of large
mammals that roamed the islands during the Middle Pleistocene
Epoch have been discovered in the 1920s. The fossils of elephas,
stegodons, rhinoceroses, and deerhavebeendiscovered in Cagayan,
Pangasinan, Rizal, Panay Island and in Northeastern Mindanao. The
elephas, stegodon, and rhinoceros are now extinct in the country.
In Cabarruyan Island in Lingayen Gulf,.fossilized tooth of a
dwarf elephant was reported to have been retrieved. This specie of
dwarf elephant was subsequently identified and named Elephas beyeri
after H. Otley Beyer, considered as the Father of Philippine
Archaeology and Prehistory. Von Koenigswald, a paleontologist
known for his work on Java Man, gave the name for thi·s specie.
After the Second World War,increased interest in tlte prehistoric
beginnings of the Philippines evolved. Archaeology was later on
introduced as part o. f the cu.rriculum at the University of the
Philippines.
Wilhelm G. S o l h e I I c o n d u c t e d the first post-war excavations
in Masbate Island from 1951 to 1953. Alfredo Evangelista and E.
Arsenio Manuel assisted him in undertaking the work.
Between 1950 and 1954, Solheim was th-e research associate at
the Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology of' th e University of the
Philippines and the librarian and curator of the American Historical
Collection of the U.S. embassy in Manila. His earliest works in
Philippine archaeology was in 1951, with the publications on
archaeologicalfieldwork in San Narciso, Tayabas (now Quezon). His
activities included extensive field experience in Southeast Asia, as
well as the various islands of the Pacific Region.
From 1958 to 1962, Robert B. Fox and Alfredo Evangelista, both
working for the National Museum of the Philippines, undertook
r i e s o f test-digs in the caves of Cagraray, Albay and Bato,Sorsogon.
Tradeware ceramics from China and Thailand were recovered in
Calatagan.
Fox led the Tabon CavesArchaeologicalProject in Southwestern
Palawan, resulting in the unearthingof late Pleistocene human fossils
and stone tools and implements. Charcoal materials analyzed by
carbon-14 technique revealed the presenceof man in the area between
22,000 to 24,000 years ago.
Human fossil bones of at least three individuals were found.
These included a large frontal bone, with the·brows and part of the
nasal bones as well as fragments of a mandible and teeth. Classified
as o d e m manor Homo Sapiens, these are the earliest knownhuman
inhabitants of the Philippine.s.
Neil McIntosh of th University of Sydney in Australia
undertook the analysis and·X-rays of tpe T a b o skullcap and
mandible in 1975. Details •
showed the presence of a thin fissure on
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book.
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The research of Scott showed that Maragtas isnot a prehispanic
document but a book written by Pedro Monteclaro, a local historian
of Panay. Monteclaro's publisher in_1907, rioted that this Maragtas
should not be considered as facts, all of which are accurate and true. -
The publisher pointed out that many of the author's data do not
tally with what we hear from old men. The author wrote that twoof
hismanuscripts were rotten and hardly legible. None of thesewritten
materials was preserved for future generations. He made no
explanation about thedateaswell as theoriginof hissources. Neither
were there claims to clarity. There is no tradition of recording history
nor legal decision in Panay during the p_ colonial times. Thus the
Mar_agtas could neither support the presence of any pre-Spanish
Confederation of Madiaas (also spelled as Madyaas) nor uphold the
existence of a Sumakwel Code.
Previously regarded as the second oldest legal code in the
Philippines was the Code of Kalantiaw. Thiscode was said to bea set
of ancient l a w promulgated in 1433 by Datu Bendara Kalantiaw
(Spanish spelling, Calantiao) of Aldan, the third Muslim ruler of
Panay. .
The code itself was contained in one of the chapters of the Las
antiguas leyendas de la isla. de Negros (Ancient Legends of Negros
Island) written by Fr.Jose Maria Pavon, a Spanish secular priest who
became a parish priest of Himamaylan, Negros Occidental in 1838-
1839. Jose E. Marco of Negro·s Occidental discovered· the alleged
Pavon manuscripts and presented it to Dr. James Robertson, Director
of the Philippine Library and Museum in 1914. According to Marco's
confession, he obtained the two manuscript volumes from someone
who had stolen them from the Himamaylan convento during the
Revolution.
Director Robertson had the Pavon manuscripts published in·
its English translation in 1917. The Philippine Studies Program of
the University of Chicago reprinted the translation in 1957.
Eventually, Filipino historians and textbook writers acknowledged
the authenticity of the Pavon manuscripts without any doubt.
In the unprecedented doctoralstudy of Scott, he concluded that
the Pavon manuscripts were not genuine and that the Code of
Kalantiaw was a hoax. He presented his serious objections to this
fake "historical" code. They are as follows:
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• 1. There is no evidence that Fr. Pavon, the alleged author of
the manuscript, was ever in the Philippines in 1838, or
p ar ish priest o f t h e t o w n in 1839, the d a tes of the
man uscript. The discovererof thealleged manuscript, Jose
E. Ma rco , was also i . nvolved in the sale of other fake
historical documents. There is no historical evidence for
theexistence of Datu Kalantiaw, or a codeof his nameother
than the documents presented by Jose Marco.
2. The contents of the manuscript are of dubious value. For
example, the author praysfor the preservationof the King
of Spain .in 1838 and dedicates a book to him in 1839, but
Spain had no king between 1833 and 1874.
3. The author also states that the month of November was
called a bad month for it brought air laden with putrified
microbes of evilfevers. It was only in the 1850s that Louis
Pasteur discovered the theory of infectious germs. The
word "microbe" itself was invented by Dr. Charles
EmmanuelSedillot. He proposed the termfor thefirst time
in a lecture before the Academy of Sciences in 1878. .
4. The Kalantiaw Code contains many strange edicts that
c ntradict thecharacter of the Filipino. For example, the
codeprescribed deathpenalty for the crimeof tresspassing
on the datu'shouse, but imposed onlya year'sslavery for
stealing his wife.
Eventually, Scott's doctoral dissertation wa published by the
USTPress (Unitas, Vol.41,1968). The following year, it was reissued
with the title, Prehistoric Source Materials for the Study of Philippine
History (UST Press, 1969). The same book was published in the
second revised edition by New Day Publishers (Quezon City) in
1984. In the lastchapter of the book, Looking/or the Prehispanic Filipino
issued in 1992 by New Day Publishers, Scott wrote a chapter titled,
Kalantiaw: TheCode that Never Was.Scott's conclusions havenotbeen
challenged by any historian to date.
Another narrative that many Filipinos have learned is about
thelegendary warrior princessnamed Urduja. She has beenadopted
asa symbol of a woman of distinguished courage, an inspiration for
women in the country.
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Unfortunately, this tale is another his torica l error that h a s •
created false impressions and should b e corrected. The story
reportedly came from Muhammad lbn Abdullah lbn Batuta also
known as lbn Batuta (1304--1378), an Arab traveler from Morocco.
His book Rihlah (Travels) includes descriptionsof the Byzantine court
of Constantinople (now Istanbul) and the Black Death of Baghdad
(1348).
According to his travelaccounts, while somewhere in Southeast
Asian waters, he reached the land of Tawalsii after a voyage of 71
days,and.China was 15 daysaway with a favorable wind. InTawalisi,
he mentioned a mysterious amazon named Princess Urduja who
would only marry the man .who could beat her in fis tfigh ts. She
presided overa court so fascinating and majestic. She gave Ibn Batuta
giftsof silk,spices, sheep, buffaloes, and two elephant-loadsof rice.
The legenq of Princess Urduja is quite amusing but historians
could not certify its authenticity. M o d e m historians agree that
Princess Urduja was just an illusor creation of lbn Batuta, a
contemporary of Marco Polo(1254-1324), the Venetian traveler whose
accounts in the East, particularly China (the English translation of
the original title of the book was The Description of the World recorded
by Rustichello, a romance writer from Pisa), drew the attention of a
great number of Europeans an_d stimulated interest in Asian trade.
Efforts to correct historical errors are still ongoing. Many
historians even investigate for themselves the validity of sources
and data. Th e concern of historians has been to collect and record
facts about the past and to discover new facts with utmost care and
t r u t h f u ln ess . The d a m a g e c a u s e d b y d e c e p t i o n is s u r e l y
immeasurable but the b l u n d e r .itself is a challenge that every
individual h o u l d face. The determination to uncover the past
necessarily involves the use of auxiliary disciplines and lit·erary
forms.
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Chapter Test No. 1
Name: Date: _
Course, Year,and Section: , _
I. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter with the cc;>rrect answer.

Write your answers on the blanks provided: (15 pts.)
1. Based on his theory, actions and events in history
may be attributed to economic motives.
a. Alvin Scaff c. Karl Marx
b. Arnold Toynbee d. Fernand Braudel
2. Hegel's Naturwissenchaften, the antithesis refers to
this.
a. historical reality c. particular ideal
b. particular situation d. world of spirit of
or matter thought
3. According to him, Philippine history is a story of
struggle.
a. Renato Constantino c. Antonio de Morga
b. Sonia Zaide d. Robert Fox
4. The item below is a secondary source.
a. diary c. journal
b. fossil d. love letter
5. This is an example of an artifact.
a. jaw bone c. soil
b. pottery d. jewelry
6. He wrote the Sucesos de Lils Islas Filipinas.
a. Feodor Jagor c. Alfredo
Evangelista
b. Antonio de Morga d. Arsenio Manuel
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7. Asidefrom thosein Madrid,mostof the collections

of Alfred Marche in his 1881 major excavation are
found in this city.
a. Cebu c. New York
b. , Manila d. Paris
8. This is the pwposeof the Michigan archaeological
expedition from1922 to 1925.
a. exploration of numerous Pleistocene sites in
•
Northern Luzon
b. collect Chinese ceramics exported to the
Philippines from China
c. gather artifacts from ancient graveyards
d. search for preJ:tistoric man in Cagayan Valley
9. The remains of the Tabon Man was discovered
under the leadership of this archaeologist.
a. Otley Beyer c. Antonio de Morga
b. Wilhehn Soheim Il d. Robert Fox
10. In the late1960s, Karl Hutterer and Rosa Tenazas
of this university recovered prehistoric artifacts in
the.middle of Cebu City.
a. Ateneo de Manila
b. Silliman University
c. San Carlos University d.
University of Michigan
11. He wrote in 1907 that two of his written sources
for the Sumakwel Code were rotten and almost
unreadable.
a. Jose E. Marco c. Jose Maria Pavon
b. Pedro Monteclaro d. James Robertson
12. According to lbn Batuta, Princess Urduja ruled in
this kingdom which he travelled 15 days away
from China.
a. Tawalisi c. Pangasinan
b. Thalamasin d. Borneo
14
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Si-Kavay boreher first-born son Sibo. Samar, their first daughter came
next.
Numerous legendsexplain how placesgot their names. In many
instances, the name of a plac . is derived from a brief form of word
linked to the story,fpr example Tagaytay from "taga Itay;"Mindoro,
from the names of a couple Mina and Doro; and Manila, from the
word Maynilad (there are n lad plants in the place).
Legends and myths at times provide a fanciful counterpart to
actual explanations of things and events. The legend of Bernardo
Carpio, called Haring mga Tagalog (King of the Tagalogs) presents
.an imaginative explanation of how the country was shaken by
earthquakes. According to the legend, Bernardo Carpio was rebuked
by the godsforhisinsolenceand leftendlessly chained in Montalban
Gorge in Rizal Province. ·He was cursed to keep two mountain
walls from colliding. Whenever he pauses to regain strength, the
wallsof Montalban Gorgestartclosing in. Carpio pushes them back
so that the mountains would not grind him into pieces. As a result,
the ground around him shudders.
The analytical s t u d y of geology commenced with the
publication of James Hutton's Theory of the Earth (2 volumes, 1795).
Hutton (1726-1797), a British geologist, formulated the uniformitarian
theory of geology which maintains that the laws of nature have
remained constant. He further explained that the physical and
chemical processes that haveacted throughout geologic time are the
same processes seen today. Taking the hydrologic cycle for instan_ce,
condens , ation always precedes precipitation. Processes such as
volcanism and erosion that havecaused changes in theearth'ssurface
had been operating in th·e same manner over a very long period of
time. He rejected the theory ofcatastraphism,which was the prevailing
belief during his time. Catastrophism asserts that only major
catastrophes could alter the formation of the earth. ·
Maps or chartscovering the entire world or specific regions are
contained in an atlas. Ptolemy, an Alexandrian scholar produced
the first collection of maps in about A.O. 150. In the 16th century,
Gerardus Mercator used the term atlas in the title of his collection of
maps. The term was derived from the custom of placing the Greek
mythological figure Atlas holding the earth on his shoulders on the
titlepages of map collections. The first modem atlas titled,Theatrum
Orbis Terrarum (Theater of the Earth), was published in 1570 by
Abraham Ortelius, a Dutch cartographer.
17
Ortelius noticed that the AmeriClan continents seemed to have
been disjoined from Europe and Africa. He realized that the coasts
of the three continents could be linked together like a huge jigsaw
puzzle.
AlfredWegener (1880-1930), a German meteorologist,also noted
his inquiry regarding the three continents which, Ortelius had 300
years ago. He began tocombine someobservations, which centered
on the view that the east .coast 0£ South America fits within th.e
contours of the west coast of Africa. This suggests that these
continents may have been partof one huge landmass. Hepostulated
that these continents had simplydrifted apart over millions of years.
Wegener's theory of continental drift wascontained in his book,
The Origin of Continents and Oceans, published in 1915. He named
the supercontinent, Pangaea, a Greek word meaning "all land."
Pangaea hadbegunb,,realdng up approximately 200million yearsago,
earli.er into a northern portion, which he named Laurasia and a
southern portion, termed Gondwanaland by the Austrian geologist
Eduard Suess.
Wegener supported his theory with fossil evidence. Plant and
animal fossils from thecoastlines of South America and Africa found
to match. Fossils in unlikely climates further defended his claim,
such as the discovery of tropical plant fossils in Antarctica and of
glacial depositsin.Africa.
During Wegener's lifetime,histheory did not receive scientific
validationsince the technological means to prove it had not yetbeen
developed. During those days, most peoplebelieved that all earth's
formations nevermove.
.
Arthur Holmes (1890.1965), a British geologist advocated
support for Wegener's theory. In 1928, he proposed that the
convection currents within theearth's mantle driven by radioactive
heat might have caused the mechanism for continental drift.
In the 1950s, scientists began oceanographic research, which
revealed thephenomenon known as seafloor spreading. In the1%Os,
the theory of plate tectonics wasestablished. The plates of theearth
move. The theory explains that the lithosphere (the outer layer of
the earth) move sideways above a. less rigid layer called the
asthenosphere, whicl\ is under extreme pressure. Eventually, the
theory of continental drift gained far-reaching acceptance in the field
of science.
18
1hesurfaceof the earthiscontinually changingbecause of forces
either from the internal heatof the earth or theenergy produced by
the sun. Thefirst one results in·the motion of tectonic plates while
the latter, involves the movement of water from the earth's surface
to the atmosphere and then back to earth, which is also known as
hydrologic cycle which eventually results to the washing out of soil.
2. Geolol;ical Foundation
Prior to the appearance of mo d e m ma n in the Philippine
archipelago, history has to depend on the works of geologists. The
geologists seek to understand how the earth evolved into what it is
todayand forecast possiblegeologic events. In Arthur Holmes' book
The Age of the Earth (1913), he developed a geologic timescale, which
he continued to work on until 1959. The dates given for certain
geological formations are informed estimates, in terms of yearsbefore
the present (BP).
According to present estimates, the planet earth is between 4.6
and 4.8 billion years BP. The first dinosaurs were believed to have
appeared around 225 million years ago, during the Mesozoic Era.
At about65millions yearsago, thedinosaurs thatonceoccupied the
valleys, plains,and swampsbecame extinct. It is believed that these
huge creatures perished with a huge meteorite that hit the earth or
with shattering volcanic eruptions.
The Philippinesoiliscomposed of numerous rocks, which came
from regions far from the archipelago's present location. It was
during theTertiary period of the Cenozoic Era (54 million years- 2
million years BP) that the land structure of the Philippines was
defined. In the northern part, thePhilippinearchipelago w believe<;!
to be adjoined to Formosa (now Taiwan) during the Eocel\e (53- 54
million years BP) and Oligocene epochs (37 - 38 million years BP).
However, the Formosan connection was severed during the Miocene
epoch (26 million years BP). The combined effects of volcanism and
other tectonic movements of the basement complex brought about
the disjunction.
· As connections with other areas changed, the internal structure
of the archipelago also underwent changes with the flattening of
the crustal surfaceof the existing higher groundsduring thePliocene
epoch (7-13 million years BP). The emergence of man on earth was
estimated at 5 million years BP.
19
Pleistocene epoch (1.6million years to10,000 years BP), the first
divisionof the Quaternary period is the epoch prior to the Holocene
epoch (10,000 years BP to the present). During the Pleistoceneepoch,
the earth underwent a series of alternating warm and cold climates.
In Europe, scientists agree that there QCcurred four cold phases
known geologically as Gunz, Mindel, Riss, and Wurm. In the United
States, these cold phases were known as Jerseyian, Kansan glacial,
Illinoian-Iowan glacial, and Wisconsin glacial. Between the cold
phases are the three interglacial or warm periods. Each interglacial
period lasted for several thousands·of years.
The Pleistocene marke·d the beginningof evolutionary processes
in both flora and fauna. The freezing of the northern and southern
hemispheres caused an extensive spread of sea ice in the area and
helped provide a suitable climate for ice-age animals like the
mastodon and saber-tooth d tiger. In Asia, the Mongolian area and
the Himalayas were also topped with ice sheets. There was a
widespread distribution of glaciers in the higher regions of the
African continent.
In some regions of Africa and Asia, particularly along the
southern coasts, there were no ice sheets. Instead, the climatic
condition was characterized by extensive and continuous rain. This
phenomenon is known as the fluvial condition. Such condition gave
rise to the growth of rainforests and marshes, which favored the
survival of large animals.
Based on recentstudies, theearth has undergone twenty cycles
of glaciation over the past twomillion years. During the Pleistocene,
the glaciers accumulated a big quantity of water in the form of ice,
causing water levels in the world's oceans to drop. The earth's
climate, which began warming some 18,000 years ago, caused the
oceans to regain their present levels. The movements of the water
resulting from vast glaciations and deglaciations in the temperate
regioncaused convergence, as well as the separation of landmasses.
.
During the glacial periods, ocean levels were much lower
thereupon exposing the Sunda Shelf and the SahulShelf. These are
extensions of continents otherwise known as continental shelves.
In Asia, the Sunda Shelf, which is an extension of the coastal
shelf of SoutheastAsia,included the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra,Java,
and Borneo to Palawan. From Borneo, the Philippines was linked
through a narrow projection of island now occupied by Balabac,
20
Materya!es na naka·copyrighl
Palawan and Calamianes. Thecontinental shelf known as SahulShelf
is an extension of the coastal shelf of Australia. It covered the islands
of New Guinea and the Aru Islands of Indonesia.
When the Sunda and Sahul Shelves were exposed, the land
bridges were believed to have connected most of Indonesia, New
Guinea and Australia. Dark-skinned people, ancestors to the
Australoids, traveled across the bridges to New Guinea and other
islands of Melanesia. The Mongoloid people then populated New
Guinea and gradualJy journeyed tQ the southeast by sailing canoes.
Several changes in the land formation in the archipelago took
place toward the end of the Pleistocene due to a number of factors
likevolcaniceruptions, erosion, faulting,and folding of the geological
base of the islan ds.
The Pleistocene lasted for a long period of time. At the height
of the interglacial period,a great riversystem flowed from the interior
of Asia mainland and Australia poured into theoutlying areas. The
riverine connections brought about the drifting of species of fish.
Thisexplains the strikingsimilaritiesof fish fauna in EasternSumatra
with those·in Western Borneo and species found in the Philippines.
Similarly, there is a close faunal and floral relationship between
Eastern Mindanao and North Borneo.
The existence of the shallow China Sea between the Asian
mainland and the Philippines, as well as the presence of a foredeep
at the eastern margin of the country, indicates that the archipelago
was once the edge of the Asian continental platform. These reasons
further support the land bridges theory that most scientists accept.
. Some geologists like D,r. Bailey Willis questioned the validity of
the land bridges theory and mentioned that the Philippines is of
volcanic origin. Based on the volcanic theory, the emergence of the
islands was a result of the eruptions of sea volcanoes in remote
epochs.
3. The Archipelago's Name

During the pre-Spanish era, early Chinese traders a n d
geographers already knew the Philippines. Sung Dynasty sources
in 982 A.D. referred the islands as Ma-yi. Chau Ju-kua, a Chinese
trade official, gave a detailed account of his trav l to various parts
of theislands in 1225, which he called Ma-i.
21
Mate,-ya!es na naka-copyright
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thatcovers the mountain. Mount Banahaw along theQuezon border
isalso.considered a powerful energysourceforpilgrims, spiritualists,
and cults having a blend of both indigenous and Catholic beliefs
and rituals.
Three major mountain ranges are situated in Northern Luzon:
the Sierra Madre Range, the Cordillera Range, and the Caraballo
Range. The Sierra Madre, which is.the largest and longest range in
the country, faces the Pacific Ocean on the eastern coast of Luzon. It
begins near Aparri and proceeds further through Isabela, Cagayan,
and Aurora provinces. The southern part of Sierra Madre includes
Aurora, Quezon, Bulacan, Rizal, and l..4guna provinces.
The Cordillera Mountains in the western part of Northern
Luzon are parallel to the Sierra Madre Range. The Cagayan Valley
occupies the region between these two mountain ranges. The
Cordillera extends from Ilocos Norte down to the Benguet and La
Union area. In the Cordillera Range, Mount Pulag, is the second
highest peak in the country.
The most productive gold and copper mines in the country are
located within theCordillera region.Roads along the mountain range
are known for their zigzag curves. The.famous Banaue Rice Terraces,
looking like stairways to heaven, is in the Cordilleras. There are
places where the rice fields reach from an altitude of 1,500 feet to
4,50·0 feet. The Ifugaos havebuilt these terraces out of the mountain
slopes using the barest of tools over hundreds of years. Their
devotion for rice has compelled them to carve these majestic terraces
on which to plant. In regions inhabited by a pure Ifugao population,
the walls of the terraces are of round hard river stones.
.
Thecity of Baguio amidst themountainous region of Cordillera
is one of the most popular vacation destinations in the country.
Owing to the scenic attractions as well as cool temperature of the
place, Baguio has become the "summer capital" of the country.
The Caraballo Range, near Nueva Ecija and Nueva Vizcaya,
crosscuts the Sierra Madre at its middle section and the southern
end of the Cordilleras. To the south of Caraballo is the Central Plain
in Luzon.
On the southwestern coast of Luzon is the Zambales Mountain
Range. It extends from the shores of Western Pangasinan to partsof
Bulacan and Bataan. Luzon has a mountainous extension to the
southeast called BicolPeninsula.
24
In the VJ.Sayas, the most prominent mountain ranges are found
across major islands. The islands in the V1Sayas have mountainous
terrains except Samar and Bohol. .
In Mindanao, thereare four major mountain ranges: the Diwata
Range, the Tago-Apo Range, the Kalatungan-I<itanglad Range, and
the Daguma Range. TheDiwata Range borders the Pacific coast and
westof it lies th, e valey of Agusan..Tago-Apo Range formsa parallel
ridge to Diwata Range. Located in the area are the Balatukan
Mountains, the volcanic peaks of Camiguin, I<inabalin, Kumakata,
and the Mount Apo in Davao del Sur, which is also the highest
mountain in the country (2,954 meters high).
The Kalatungan-I<itanglad Mountain Range, which includes
Mounts Butig, Kidongin, and Ragang is situated in the Lanao
provinces. The Daguma Range extends near Sarangani Bay in the
south. Volcanoes at the boundaries of Daguma Range are Mount
Blil<, south of Cotabato City and Mount Parker, west of General
Santos City.
The country has over50volcanoes. The mostacti've among them
are Iraya in Batanes, Pinatubo in Zambales, Taal in Batafigas,
Banahaw in Quezon, Mayon in Albay, Bulusan in Sorsogon, Kanlaon
in Negros, Hibok-Hibok .in Camiguin, Makah;tring in Lana , and
A poin Davao del Sur.
Mt. Pinatubo which has been dormant for 611 years started to
emit fumes on April 2, 1991 after a hydrothermal explosion at the
volcano's crater took place. The most destructive seriesof eruptions
wereon June12-15, 1991. Its ashfalls reached as far as Metro Manila,
Mindoro, Palawan, and Cambodia to the east, worsening damage
to the ozone layer.
Several places in the provinces of Zambales, Tarlac, and
Pampanga, including Clark Air Base in Angeles Citywere filled with
pyroclastic flows and lahar (an Indonesian term for volcanic
mudflow). Devastation to public and privateproperties was greatly
unfavorable, placing these areas under a state of calamity.
The lahar deposits along Mt. Pinatubo still cascades down the
lowlands after heavy rains. These volcanic mudflows are expected
to last for years. They continue to defy the billion-peso dikebuilt to
contain lahar flows.
Taal Volcano, a regular tourist drawer, is a volcano within a
volcano. It is rising froma lake, which is the crater of a larger volcano,
25
now extinct. Since 1572, Taal Volcano had 33 recorded eruptions
with violent ones that occurred in 1749, 1754,1911, and 1965.
Mount Mayon, world famousfor its near-perfect conical shape,
had its first recorded eruption in 1616. It had erupted at least 45
times from then on.In 1814, it erupted disastrously, destroying five
townssurrounding its base. During the heightof the volcano's fury,
1,200 people who took refuge inside the church of the town of
Cagsawa (now Daraga) were killed. The ruins of the church tower
solely remain above ground after the tragedy.
Kanlaon Volcano had erupted s_ix times in 1985 and thrice in
1986. In 1989, it had a minor eruption. Fortunately, this did not cause
any destruction.
· There are some volcanoes whose hot rocks beneath are being
peiletrated by groundwater. When the heated underground water
reaches the surface, hot springs are formed. These hot springs are
used as baths in the houses and resorts around Mt. Makiling and
Mt. Bulusan. ·, ·
Topographic elevations less an 600 meters in altitude .are
considered hills. The most popular of these in the country are the
Chocolate Hills, with more than1,000 of them in Bohol. During the
dry months of February until May, these dome-shaped limestone
hi11s turn chocolate-brown as the grass wither. Thus the name was
given to it.
Chocolate Hills is one of the geological monuments of the
country. The other four national geological monuments are Taal
Volcano in Batangas, Montalban Cavesin Rizal Province, Sand Dunes
in Ilocos Norte, and Hundred Islands in Pangasinan.
The Department of Environment and Natural Resources
(DENR), Philippine Tourism Authority (PTA), and the National
Committee on Geological Sciences (NCGS) issued the declaration
of national geological monuments to highlight the protection of
geological structures and features with high scientific or aesthetic/
environmental value. These geological monuments would servenot
only as travel destinations in the country but also as laboratories for
geological resea .
Large rivers traverse the principal islands of the country. The
Cagayan River, with a length of 513 kilometers, is the longest river
in thecountry. It flows from theCaraballo Mountains near the Nueva
26
Vizcaya-Nueva Ecija provincial boundary and proceeds down into
the Babuyan Channel in Northern Luzon. Other important rivers in
the country include Chico, Abra, Pampanga, Bicol, Pu lang i, and
Agusan.
Between Samar and Leyte is the San Juanico Strait, the
narrowest straitin the world. Laguna de Bay is the largest freshwater
lake in Southeast Asia. l'he deepest among the lakes of Laguna is
Lake Calibato, which is 176 meters deep. This is brought about by
low silt inflow from its small watershed area.
In the middle of the tropical blue and emerald green waters of
the Sul-u Sea and Palawan lies the Tubbataha Reef, just one of the
sandbars and reefs known for its rich beautiful divesitesand marine
resources_. Seabirds, turtles, giant clams, and other marine animals
have been settling in the area. The reef covers an area of 12 miles
within the island municipality of Cagayancillo in Palawan. In
August,1987, the reef was declared a national marine park. It gained
. greater distinction and international recognition when the S C O
named Tubbataha a World Heritage Site.
Thelargest plainin thearchipelago is the Central Plain in Luzon,.
known as the "Rice Granary of the Philippines." The surrounding
greenery yields vegetables, tendrils, sprouts, flowers, and fruits.
Among the famous Philippine fruitsare lanzones, sweet mango,and
the durian.
There are about 10,000 species of flowering plants and ferns in
the country. Among the flowers in the islands are the sampaguita,
gardenia, dama de noche, water lilies, orchids and a lot more. Of
the 1,000 varieties of orchids that bloom in the country, the waling
waling (Vanda sanderian,a) is regarded as the "Queen of Philippine
Orchids."
Famous of the Philippine woods is narra, p r o c l a e d a s t h e
country's national tree in accordance with an executive proclamation
of Governor General Frank Murphy dated February 1, 1934.
Referred to as the forests of the sea, mangrove swamp forests
grow in saltwater or brackish water. The mangroves are among the
significant ecosystems that characterize the coastal areas of the
archipelago. They are considered minor forest type, compared to
mixed lowland tropical rainforest ecosystem.
Economically, the mangroves are beneficial, especially to the
coastal dwellers. They provide poles for shelter, wood for cooking,
.
27
charcoal as domestic energy source and as a source of income, nipa
sap for tuba and vinegar, nipa shingles for roofing, and ground for
aquaculture. Mangrove-dependent fishery products include
shelliish, shrimps, and mangrove crabs. These mangroves likewise
help prevent erosion of riverbanks
The country abounds in animal life. Of the 201 species of
mammals in the country, 179 are terrestrial and 22 are marine. 1he
Philippine car bao, a sw.a p type of domesticated water buffalo
has long been an important work ani?l. Other animals include
several species of deer, wild an domesticated pigs, cattle, rodents,
reptiles,birds;and mollusks. Some unique animals.in the world are
alsofound in the Philippines: the tatnaraw or Bubalus mindorensis of
Mindoro, which looks like a dwarf carabao; the tarsier of Bohol, the
smallest monkey in the world; ,and the Calamian deer or Cervus
calamianensis (pilanduk) of Pa.4twan, the w_orld's smallest deer.
. .
· There are about 25,000 s p e c i of insects in the islands. The
largest insect in the country is the giant moth (Attacus atlas), with a
wingspan of one foot. The largest and smallest bats in the world are
found in the country. The lesserflat headed batsor thelesserbamboo
bats weigh around 2 grams. Thegolden-crowned flying fox weighs
about 1.5 kilograms. It has a wingspan of 1.7 meters. These two
species of bats are found .in Olongapo City, Zambales at the Subic
Bay Forest Reserve (SBFR). .
The world's second largest after the Harpy eagle found in the
Amazon forests is the Philippine eagle (Pithecopaga jefferyi), found
in the jungles of Luzon and Mindanao. It has earned the titleof "King
of P;t,ilippine Birds". It measures fiveand a half feet in height and a
wing span of seven feet. It was previously called the monkey-eating
eagle. In the 1970s, its name was changed since it was found out
thatit only ate monkeys occasionally. Its main food consists of flying
lemurs, lizards, and snakes. In1996, the Philippine eaglewas officially
named the national bird o. f the country by virtue of a presidential
proclamation.
Other interesting birds in the country are the kalaw, which the
Spanish colonizers dubbed·as "clock of the mountains", the katala
(Philippine Cockatoo), which mwnbles and croons like a man, and
· the tiny Philippine falconet, only six and a half centimeters long.
Also found in the Philippines is the world's rarest shell,called
Glory of the Sea (Connus gloriamaris) and the Tridacna gigas, which is
28
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are the descendantsof those who werecolonized by Western settlers.
Numerically greater in number are the VISayans (primarily in the
central portion of the archipelago) and the Tagalogs. ,
'
The Cebuanos, Ilonggos, and Waray-Waray comprise a big
number among the Visayans. In the VISayas, the Ilonggos live in
Western Negros, in Southern Mindoro and in Panay Island while
the Cebuanos predominate in Cebu, Western Leyte, Bohol, Eastern
Negros, and in some c o a s areas of Mindanao. The Waray-Warays
are in the provinces of Samar and Eastern Leyte.
'
Most of the Tagalogs live in Manila, in Central Luzon, and
Southern Luzon. People coming from certain provinces in the
Tagalog region like Batangas, Bulacan,·and Quezonhave intonations
of their own.
The.Ilocanos.are considered the third biggest group. They live
particularly in Ilocos Norte, IlocosSur,an La Unionbut many have
migrated locally and abroad.
Other members of the populace include the Pangasinenses,
Pampanguefios,Zambals, Ibanags (Cagayanos), and Bicolanos. The
Pangasinenses live in the Lingayen Gulf region of Pangasinan,
including the province of Pangasinan. Many of them have already
migrated in other provinces of Central Lu7 .on. The Pampanguefios
or I<apampangans live in Central Luzon, particularly in the province
of Pampanga.
The non-Malay groups include people of Spanish and Chinese
descent. Today, the country has a growing number of Filipino
Chinese who are engaged in variouscommercial activities. They are
part of the economically and politically important minority.
Nature and ancestral beliefs have helped shape the lifestyle of
the tribal communities. The indigenous groups in various parts of
the archipelago have kept their own cultural tradition distinct
through the generations. Included here are the various mountain
peopleof Cordillera, which consist of the Isnegs of Apayao; I<alingas
of Kalinga; Ifugaos, Igorots, l b a l o , Kari.kanays, and Bontoks of
Benguet and Mountain Province. The culture of the people in this
region is quite different from that of the lowland communities.
Although a number of the populace are Christians, still many of
them are pagans.
31
The Kalingas tattoo their bodies as a sign of bravery. For them,
prestige can be achieved through oratorical ability. The Isnegs, like
the Kalingas, tattoo their bodies as. a status symbol.
The Ifugaos have a high regard for the family's honor and
dignity. They are forbidden to induce hostility, cause bloodshed or
practice adultery. Hagabi,a chairsculpted froma large massof wood,
plays an important part in the lives of the Ifugaos. This indicates
the high position of the owner in the community.
The Igorots live on rootcrops grown in their yard and on wild
pigs, deer, and fowl in the forest. The Igorots of the past engage in
headhWlting to avenge the deathof a kin or tribesman. This custom
is least practiced nowadays. .•
The Bontoks basically o hunting and agriculture for a living.
They perform rituaJs like bagbato to ensure a bountifu harvest and
the ulog,where the unmarried woman stays in a place called ulog to
-
receive male visitors and suitor s.
The lbalois and the Kankanays of Benguet and Southern
Mountain Province are considered the mostsophisticated mountain
region people because they are the most exposed to lowland life.
Although the peopleof Cordillera dwell in the highlands, they
no longer live in isolation. The influences of modem civilization
haveushered in new changesin theircommunities through the years.
Modern types of buildings are also found elsewhere in the region. .
The young generations that have gone to schools in the Christian
lowlands have almost adopted the w a y of life of the lowland
communities.
Other indigenous groups are the Gaddangs of Isabela, the
Negritos or Aetas of Zambales and the hinterlands; the Mangyans
of Mindoro; the Tagbanuas, Batak, Tao't Bato, Molbogs and Jama
Mapuns of Palawan; Mamanwa (a Negrito group) of Surigao del
Norte; the Kalibugans, Subanuns, and Samals of Zamboanga del
Sur; the Manobos, Trrurays, lranuns, and T'bolis of Maguindanao,
Cotabato, and Sultan Kudarat; Mandayas of Davao Oriental;
Bagobos and B'laans of Davao del Sur;Yakansof Basilan; the Tausugs
of the SuluArchipelago, the Badjaos of the SuluSea,and the Muslim
groups of Mindanao.
Leaders of tribal communities are chosen for their skills and
their ability to evoke support from the communal group. They
32
' be liev e in the existence of several unseen beings bestowing blessings
when honored and inflicting pain when displeased.
Theindigenouspeoplehaveadapted to variousecological zones
ranging from c;oastal to rugged mountain highlands. They prefer
permanent settlements, except for Aetas who are highly nomadic.
Badjaos live in houseboats, while others live in piledwellings.
The Aetas have already established their intimate relationship
with the woodlands as forest foragers and hunters. On the other
hand, migration by Visayan settlers in Mindanao during the
American period eventually altered the population profile in the
. region. Increased immigration from the north drove more cultural
communities in the hinterlands. Ilocanos, Tagalogs, and Visayans
settled in some provinces of Mindanao like Davao Oriental and
D.avao del Sur.
In respon_se to the call of preserving indigenous culture in the
country, some ethnic tribes specifically the Ifugaos initiated moves
adapting ancient practices with Christian religion, which scholars
refer to as inculturation.
High literacy in the country may beattributed to Filipinos' love
for education. Viewed as a key to progress, education is believed to
improve one's means of li_velihood and status. Filipino (formerly
spelled Pilipino) is the national language of the people although a
good num_ber of them·are conversant in English. The English
language is commonly used for govepunental, commercial, and
instructional purposes. ·
In everyday communication, the Filipinos combine English and
Filipino resulting to a lingocalled Taglish (from Tagalog and English).
For instance, one could hear one say, ''Happy ako for you. Sana you
won't forget us" (I'm happy for you. Hope you won't forget us) or
"Okey na ang.lahat, thank you sa iyo!" (Everything's okay, thanks to
you!)
Age is highly valued in Philippine culture. The word po,or its
variation ho is employed in conversation to show respect. The close
approximation of its English translation is Sir or Madam. Adult
male and female who are unfamiliar to the speaker are greeted as
mama and ale.
Siblings in the family are addressed according to their position
within thefamily hierarchy like kuya or manong for the oldestbrother
33
and ate or manang for the oldest sister; diko and ditse for Ute second
brother and sister; and sangko and sanse,for the third oldestbrother
and sister.
Traditionally,Filipinos haveclose family ties. Apart from their
blood relatives, Christian Filipinos adopt new kins (kumpadre and
kumare) through having sponsors (ninong and ninang) dur ing
baptisms and weddings. They also extend help in the spirit of
bayanihan (cooperation).
Filipinos are known for their hospitality. They receive their
visitors with warmth and friendship. They are also thankful to those
who have been good to them, manifesting the Filipino valueof utang
na loob or one's debt of gratitude to those who have contributed to
their success. ·
For centuries, the Filipinos kept faith in the Almighty God.
Throughout the good and bad times, they can easilyassimilate, bend
but neveJ," break like the strength of the narra and the resilience of
.the bamboo. ·
7. Theories on the Origin of Filipinos

. Long before the Spanish colonizers came into the Philippines,
people with distinct cultures had already inhabited the islands. The
migration theory of H. Otley Beyer, regarding the peopling of the
archipelago became the most widely known version in Philippine
prehistory. According to Dr. Beyer, the ancestorsof the Filipinoscame
in waves of migration.
First to reach the archipelago was the caveman "Dawn Man"
type, who was similar to the Java Man and other Asian Hcnrzo sapiens
of 250,000 years ago. Dr. Beyer called the first Filipino the."Dawn
Man", for he emerged on the islands at the dawn pf time.
Next to settle in the islands were the aboriginal pygmy group
or the Negritos. They were said to have reached the islands before
the land bridges from Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and Australia
disappeared. They came between 25,000,and 30,000 yearsago.They
were described to have black skin, darky kinky hair, roWld black
eyes, flat noses and with a usual height of 5 feet.
Third to arrive were the seafaring and tool-using Indonesian
group who came about 5,000 to 6,000 years ago. They came in two
waves of migration, with type A, arriving about 3,000 to 4,000 B.C.
34
and type 8, about 1,500 to 500 B.C. Indonesian A was tall, slender
withlight complexion, and thin lips.lndo esian Bwas shorter, with
bulky body, dark complexion, and thick lips. They were able to
displace the Negritos to the mountains with their more advanced
culture.
Thelast to reach the archipelago were the seafaring Malays who
introduced the Iron Age culture. They moved into the islands from
300 B.C. to the 14th and 15th centuries A.O.
Beyer's migration theory became popular and unquestioned
for quitea numberof years. Presently, the so-called waves of migration
is nowbeingdismissed because there is nodefiniteevidence, whether
archaeologicalor historical, to support it. Noevidenceof any ''Dawn
Man" type (250,000 years ago) or hominid species havebeen found
in thecountry.So far, the oldesthuman relic discovered is only about
22,000 BP.
In reality, Southeast Asian people shared many customs and
traditions without anyethnic group racially or culturally dominant.
It was the Western colonizers who divided the Asian inhabitants
into ethnic gro\.!ps.
In place of the waves of migration theory, modem scholars·
suggest the so-called core population theory. According to this theory,
the inhabitants of the Philippines consist of a core population to
which came accretions of people who moved in from the region.
The movements of people were erratic rather tha.n in sequential
waves.
TheSoutheast Asian people who reached the Philippines during
prehistoric times became the core population. Each group, the
Indonesians, Malays, and others,stood as equal, without any of them
racially or culturally dominant.
This core population shared common cultural traits or base
culture. They used similarly fashioned tools, pottery, and ornaments;
and upheld common beliefs and rituals. If there were some
differences, these may be due to some factors like adaptation to the
environment. Furthermore, the immigrants did not come into the
archipelago in a fixed period of time nor with a definitedestination.
. -
35
Materyales na nak a-copyright

.
book.
book.
13. · The southernmost point of the Philippines is
a. Pusan Point c. Y'Ami Isle
b. Saluag Isle d. Sulu
14. Based on the migration theory of Otley Beyer, Iron
Age culture was introduced into the Philippine
archipelago by
a. Malays c. Negritos
b. Indonesians d. Chinese ·
15. The Bagobos and B'laans are primarily found in
a. Davao Oriental c. Maguindanao
b. Davao del Sur d. Sulu Archipelago
II. Matching 'fype. Match Columns A and B. Write the letters

only: (10 pts.)
Column A ColumnB
Set 1
1. Ragang a. Mindoro
2. Hibok-Hibok b. Lanao
3. Halcon-Baco Mt. Range c. Negros
-- 4. Mt. Diwalwal d. Camiguin
-- 5. I<anlaon Volcano e. Davao del Norte
S et2
1. Kalaw a. largest bat
2. Katala b. with a wingspan of
one foot
3. G o l d - cr ow ned c. "clock" of the
flying fox mountains
. 4. Pygmygoby d. croons like man
5. Giant moth e. endemic freshwater
speci•e
m. Essay: (5 pts. each)
1. How does the country's geography affect the Filipino
people?
38
2. Identify and describe the culture of theindigenous peop\e
of the Philippines.
3. Why do modem day scholars oppose Beyer's waves of
migration theory?
' .
39
· Materyales na naka·copyright
•
Pre-Colonial Philippines
1. Cultural Evolution of the Early Filipinos

Early historiansbelieved that thefirstsettlers of the islands came
by land bridges from Mainlan, d Asia during Pleistocene epoch. They
wandered farther into the inland parts of the islands in search of
new grazing grounds. They lived by hunting and gathering.
Eventually they explored the new land even more and sojourned in
the islands after the land bridges had disappeared with the rise of
sea level brought by deglaciation period.
.
Western historians assume that theaborigines of the Philippines
were the Australo-Melanesian people who are distinctively small
with dark skin and curly brown hair. They were the ancestors of the
people known today as Negritos or Aetas.
In the field of archaeology, the migration of Proto-Austronesian
type is believed to have resulted to the peopling of the Philippine
archipelago. The coming of the aborigin s to the islands is linked to
the New Stone Age of Southeast Asia.
The Mainland Origin Hypothesis by Peter Bellwood of the
Australian National University and K.C. Chang of Harvard
University maintains that the earlyinhabitantsoriginated fromSouth
China and Taiwan. From there theyspread southward and westward
reaching Northern Philippines by about 5,000 B.C. to 4,000 B.C. and
to Eastern Indonesia 4,500 years ago. They gradually replaced the
hunting and gathering populations.
. The otherhypothesis, the Island Origin Hypothesis, believes that
the prehistoric people originated and d i s p e d from an island in
Southeast Asia. Wilhelm Solheim II of the University of Hawaii has
been the leading proponent of this idea. l-Ie assumes that Proto
Austronesian developed primarily in Northeastern Indonesia and
Mindanao Island, expanding northwards with a developing
maritime population through the Philippine Archipelago and into
Taiwan. From there they reached South China.
40
Solheim II believes that it was the Nusantao (the maritime
oriented prehistoric people) who developed ?roto-Austronesian as
a trade language along the coasts of Northern Luzon, Southern
Taiwan, and South China, between 4,500 and 5,000 B.C.
Historians presuppose that between 300 and 2 0 0 B.C.,
inhabitants of Malay-Polynesian descent settled in the Philippine
archipelago. They were mainly an agricultural and fishing people,
others wandered from place to place. There were 30 to 100 families
in a society.known as barangay.
Tool assemblages, clothing, pottery, jewelry and the like are
technological artifacts. These man-made objects illustrate the ability
of man to. respond to the conditions of the environment. The
inhabitants of the islands had to adapt to their surroundings for
subsistence. S.uch teclmology that hasbeendeveloped becamea part
of civilizatiQn. Skills were handed down from generation to
generation. Whatever has been learned in the process is cultural in
nature. Of course,people are not born withculture. Through practice,
word of mouth, written text and rituals, culture is learned. A
country's past history unveils its cultural tradition.
Culture may be associated with manufactured materials, for
these are products of human behavior. Certainly, the structuring of
the early Filipinosociety has been achieved in response to the needs
of prehistoric Philippine communities.
Old Stone Age or Paleolithic Period (50,000-10,000B.C.) is the era
of crudestone tools and weapons. In the Philippines,it was believed
to }µive started in Cagayan Valley. This can b. e inferred from the
archaeological materials unearthed in the area, bearing imprints of
human use. These traces show the emergence of people that once
wandered in the valley.
Thestudyof toolassemblages indicates the dominanceof flake
tools over large cobble tools. However, no fossil evidence of human
beings were found in the vicinity. Perhaps, they had migrated to
some other places, inasmuch as several wild animals were roving
along the area.
Man had no other tools than sharp edged stones that could be
held by the hand. Many kinds of stones, which naturally produce.
sharp edges when broken or chipped (e.g. flint and chert), were
commonly used. Such implements are called core tools if the
remaining core itself is used as the tool. Pebbletools are those rounded
41
• Materyales na naka-copyright
stones like those found in the riverbeds. They are called cobble tools
if these rounded stones are larger. Flake tools are skillfully edged
and shaped.
At the onset, man 's principal way of adaptation to the
environment was by hunting. These stone tools could be used for
hingthe.oneof animalsand shellfish that they havegathered.
These implements may also be used in cutting, splitting, stripping
and piercing wooden branches, palmleaves, and bamboo.Tree barks
were used for clothing.
Certainly, with theabundance of fish in riversand seas, methods
of preparing food were conceived. Archaeological evidence shows
kinilaw to be the earliest method of preparing fish for consumption
where vinegar or limejuice enhances the taste of the fish. In
Mindanao, the juice of the tabon-tabon (Hydrophytune orbiculatunz),a
green fruit, is added to remove the fishy smell. In Leyte and Cebu,
they use coconut milk.
'
The selection of the Tabon Cave Complex in Lipuun Point,
Quezon, Palawan,some30,000 yearsago is an exampleof prehistoric
planning for adaptation. The main chamber entrance is about 41
meters long. Sunlight enters intotheinterior area, making it habitable
and warm.
Upon its discovery in 196 , the present surface of the Tabon
Cave was noted to havebeena habitatof the Tabon bird (also known
as the Philippine mound builder): The cave must have gotten its
name from this wild fowl.
New types of stone tools appeared in various parts of the
Philippines, more polished and highly specialized, primarily blade
and ax- and adz-like forms for forestclearing and boatmaking. The
smooth surface of this type of stone tools was made possible by
rubbing against another stone. This development resulted to the so
called New Stone Age or Neolithic Period (10,000-500 B.C.) otherwise
known as Agricultural Revolution by anthropologists. Rootcrops like
taro (gabz)and yam(ubz) wereamong theimportant crops. This period
alsoindicates that upland ricefal'IlU!1g has beendeveloped, although
this practice did not appear at the same time in every area. •
By striking the stones, sparks have been produced which

resulted to the making of fire at will by the ancient settlers. Light
and heat became availaple any time of the day. The production of
baked clay po in the New Stone Age implies that fire had been
42
fully utilized. The manufacture of pottery was made possible by a
p r o c called k i l n i n which makes use of fire. Fire eventually
changed the lif t y l e of the people, particularly in the preparation
of their meals. Thus, theinhabitants could already grill or boil their
food. Theslash-and-bum agriculture practiced by the early settlers
also caused them to search for new land.
Jars as burial coffins for secondary burial were also made.
Bones of the departed were enclosed in these vessels after being
buried underground for a period of time. Closely related with burial
practices was bone washing and bone painting or dipping with
materials like sappan wood or red dyewood (Caesalpinia sappan)
and hematite (iron ore) for protection from decay.
In El NidoCave, Palawan, painted,bones were placed in small·
niches inside the cave. In some areas of the archipelago, corpses
w e r e i n t e d i r e c t l y into the ground in reclining or bentpositions.
In all kinds of burial, funerary offerings or pabaon were
included such as clothes, food and weapons. Many indigenous
groups in theinterior mountains and coastal areasstill practice this
tradition in the belief that the dead will use these materials when
he sojourns towards the "soulworld." Otherscover the faces of the
dead with thin sheathsof gold to prevent bad spirits from entering
the body.
.
The Manunggul ja.r, an example of funerary vessel is n. ow
considered a National Cultural Treasure of the Philippines. The
upper portion of the jar has curvilinear incised scroll designs,
painted with red hematitite (iron oxide). On the lid cover is a form
of a boat with two human figures. The figure at the back is.a
boatman steering the "ship of the dead." Thefigure in front is the
passenger whose hands are folded over his chest. This represents
the soul of the person whose bones were placed in the jar.
Philippine pottery shows a variety of shapes and decorative
techniques, such as incision, stippling, applique, and impression
by r o p e a n d ma t . Their d e s i g n s w e r e usually g e o me t r c.
. Subsequently, pottery became more functional like the palayok fo
cooking, the banga and tapayan for storing liquids. In Ilocos, the
making of burnay pottery lives on.
. .
The Early Metal Age (500 B.C.) refers to the time in the
development of human culture where toolsand weapons were made
43
of metalwhich gradually replaced stone tools.The metalimplements
at this stage were crudely fashi on ed .
The first metai_to be widely used was copper. Raw copper was
· then pounded intoornamentsand tosomeextent into tools. Bronze,
ma d e of imported tin and other metals l k e copper, emerged
simultaneously with copper as a result of interisland movements of
people. Although bronze had entered the Philippines, it did not
constitute a major technological phase in the development of Metal
Age in the country because of the preference of early inhabitants to
iron ore in tool making (200 B.C.).
Jewelry during theearly phaseof the Metal Age consists mainly
of beads. There werebeadsmade of jade, stones, glass, shells, seeds,
twigs and stem_s, especially reeds of plants created into necklaces
and other ornaments. Only the beads made of semiprecious stones
endured decay in the graveyards and habitation sites.
Jewelry as an ancient art began as amulets and charms to ward
off bad spirits or to give supernatural powers .to the wearer. In
particular tribes like the T'boli, they wore bodyornaments to please
the gods and to signify the status of the wearer. It was only later
when personal adornments became purely decorative.
Ornaments of different kinds a n d designs (ranging from
earrings to necklaces and bracelets) were buried with basic metal
tools in various sites throughout the archipelago. There were
personal adornments made of materials like nephrite and carnelian
beads, which were available only through trade. This indicates that
the economic resources of the community had fairly advanced.
J e e l r y a t this period indicates the emergence of some kind of social
stratification.
The appearance and utilization of improved iron tools as the
major technological devicefor exploiting the environment constitute
the Developed Iron Age. As the use of iron became widespread,
community specializationemerged as shown by theadvances in tin
smithing, jewelry making and in the utilization of resources.
Iron tools were recovered in Luzon (particularly in the Bulacan,
Batangas, and R i u l areas). Tool specimens were also dug up in
Palawan and Masbate. The early Filipinos made metal implements
like knives (from sintple to elaborate ones), the sumpak (blowguns),
the kalikot for pounding betelnuts into powder, and gongs to mark
the hours of the day and night.
44
book.
book.
"Story of Rama") which likely begun in the 3rd century B.C. These
epics were ritually recited. ·
The early Filipinos had already developed a system of syllabic
writing, with eachsymbol representing a syllable. TheTagalog script
wascalled baybayin,sometiineserroneously called alibata. It consisted
of.three vowels and fourteen consonants, with a total of 17 letters.
The writing·system was horizontal, from left to right. The writing
instrument used was a sharp pointed itonlocally known as sipol. With
this iron instrument, the natives engraved words on bamboo shafts,
wooden boards,'leaves of plants, pottery, and. metal. Remaining
evidence of pre-colonial writing are so rare. Only three had been
previously found: the 14th - 15th century·Butuan silver strip, the lQlh
· century Butuan ivory seal, and the 15th c e n Calatagan jar.
The first artifact of pre-Hispanic origin that had writing on
copper material dates back to 900 A.D. The ,script inscribed on it
was written in Kavi (Old Javanese writing
' . system), which does not
looksimilar to the ancient baybayin. The text was in a languagesimilar
to four languages, namely: Sanskrit, Old Tagalog, Old Javanese and
Old Malay. The copper object is now called Laguna Copperplate
Inscription (LCI).It was found near the mouth of the Lumbang River
of Laguna province in .1990. The thin copper plate measures 20 by
30 cen. timeters in size. '
Antoon Postma, a Dutch national who has lived with the

Mangyans for a long time and the director of the Mangyan Assistance ·
and Research Center in Mansalay, Oriental Mindoro, was able to
unlock the message on the copper material.
The LCI is an official record imprinted in the Saka year 822 in
the month of March-April on the 4th day of the dark half of the moon
on a Monday. This document was issued to Lady Angkatan together
with her relative Bukah (child of His Honor Namwran) clearing
Namwran,his family, and all their descendants of a debt equivalent
to 1 kati and 8 suwamas of gold from the Chief of Dewata (Diwata,
a town near Butuan). The pardon was issued by the chief of Tundun
(Tundo), represented by the leader of Pailah Jayadewa.
Others who witnessed the document include the leader of
Puliran (Pullian); Ganasakti, representing the leader of Paila
(Norzagaray); Bisruta, representing the leader of Binwangan
(Obando); and the Chief ofMedang.
The Dutch expert who looked into the LCI's authenticity
concluded that the specific script style used in the copper material
47
was consistent with its indicated dateand that the correctness of the
languages and words used would have been very hard for forgers
to produce.
Both oral and written literature had already flot1rished in the
country prior to thecoming of theSpaniards. Thisconsists of bu<toug
(riddles), awit (songs), salawikain (proverbs), legends, myths, and
poems.Some of the folk epicsof the early times inclttde: the Ilocano
l.Jlm-ang, the Ifugao Alim and Hudhud, the I<alinga Ulali111, the Bicol
Handiong, the Maranao Bantugan, and the Maguindanao Indarapatra
and Sulayman.The customs and traditions of the early Filipinos bear
Hindu influence. Among them were as follows: the placing of a
fresh flower garland around the neck of a visitor; the giving of
bigaykaya (dowry) an rendering of personal services in the house
of the bride'sparents by thegroom before the wedding; the throwing
of rice grains to the newlyweds after the matrimonial ceremony by
the guests; and the offering of buyo (mixture of betelnut, ikmo leaf,
and lµne) to a guest as an expression of hospitality.
There were early superstitions in the country that came from
Indianized migrants. Un.tit today, many believe that a girl, who sings
in front of the stove while cooking will marry a widower and that a
catcleaning its faceindicates the comingof a visitor. Likewise, eating
twin bananas would cause a mother to give birth to twins.
The mode of dressing in pre--Spanish Philippines shows Indian
influences. The putong (turban) of the early Filipino men and the
sarong (lower garment) of the· early Filipino women resemble the
Indian putees and sari.
The archaeological relics excavated in the Philippines further
indicate Indian influences. Some of these are the following: the gold
image of Agusan,which was excavated on the leftbank of Wawa River
near the townof Esperanza, Agusan Province in 1917 (now preserved
at the Gem Room of the Chicago Museum of Natural History); the
copper image of Ganesha, elephant god of the Hindus which was also
· found in Mactan in 1843; and the god G.aruda pendantof Palawan
found at Brooke's Point in 1961. Th e .garudais a mythic,\) bird that
Hipdu god Vishnu used as vehicle.
Certain industries in the country are of Indian origin, notably
boatbuilding, weaving of cotton clothes, and metal work. Decorative
arts were also influenced as shown in the design of gold necklaces
and bolo handles..The manufacturing of some musical instruments
like the kudyapi (guitar) and the plantingof some species of flowers
. .
48
likesampaguita and champaka; fruits including mango and nangka;
and vegetables such as ampalaya, patola, and malunggay came from
Indianized sojourners.
According to paleographical experts, the ancient Filipino
writing originated from India. According to Dr.T.H. Pardo de Tavera,
there are more than 340 Sanskrit words found in the Tagalog
language. Dr. Jose Villa Panganiban, former Director of the Institute
of National Language, gives a longer list of 375Sanskritloan words
in the Filipino national language which is basically Tagalog. These
include the Filipino words ama (father), nanay (mother), asawa
(spouse), halaga (price), kalapati (dove), kuta (fort), sutla (silk), saksi
(witness), tala (star), raha (king), sandata (w ea p o n ), and maharlika
(noble) to name a few.
Historically speaking, Sino-Philippine relations began in the·
10thcentury A.O. The earliest knownauthentic dateof theserelations
was 982A.O., when several traders from Ma-yi (believed to include
Mindoro, Batangas, Manila,and Pampanga) arrived in Canton board
n a n Arab ship and sold their valuable merchandise. Ma-Tuan-lin,
a Chinese chronicler, included this detail in his Wen ShiannTung Kao
(General Inv stigation on the Chinese Cultural Sources).
C h i n a d u r i n g those times, h a v i n g refined m a n y of its
developments in the fieldsof historical writing, painting, calligraphy,
and hard-glazed·porcelain, was beginning to expand its maritime
activities in Nanyang (Southeast Asian world) especially during the
Southern Sung (1127-1280, Y)uan (1280-1368), and Ming (1368-1614)
dynasties. Chinese merchants on board their junks left Chuanchow,
Canton and other ports in China and traded with the people of
Lingayen,Manila, Mindoro, and Sulu.
In 1225, Chau Ju-kua, a Chinese Superintendent of Foreign
Trade described China's trade with Ma-i in his book Chu-fan-chi
(Reports on the South Sea Barbarians). This narrative pointed out
the honesty of the early Filipinos in their business transactions with
the Chinese traders. This was confirmed by another Chinese writer,
Wang Ta-yuan.
Wang Ta-yuan's description of medieval Filipino life.appears
in his Tao-i-chih-lio (Summary Notices of the Barbarians of the Isles),
which was written in 1349. Both Chu1an-chi and the Tao-1-chih-lio
have sections about a barbarous place called P'i-she- ya, which is
presumably Visayas. Wang Ta-yuan descnbes the nativesof P'i-she
ya as being tattooed up to e neck.
49
.
•
During the reign of Zhu Di (Chu Ti), the Yung-lo Emperor in

1403 to 1423 when China .was expanding the f?oundaries of its
domain, he induced the countries VJSited by his missions to pay
tributes to the Ming court. The native rulers of the Philippines,
Borneo, Java, Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, Indochina and other
Southeast Asian countries sent ·regular tribute embassies to the
imperial court of the Ming emperor.- According to the Ming Shih
(Annals of the Ming Dynasty), Record of Luzon, Record of Cami
lig, and the Record of Sulu, the Philippines sent eight tribute
embassies to Beijing between 1372 to 1424.
'
China's greatest maritime explorer, Admiral Zheng He, also
known as Cheng Ho, (1371-1435), led seven expeditions from 1405
to 1433in the southseasand reached the Philippines, Borneo, Malay
Peninsula, Singapore, Indochina, India, and Ceylon (Sri Lanka). It
is said thatCheng-Hp's first expedition, whichconsisted of 62ships,
landed in the Philippines in December 1405.
While in Jolo, one of his men, Pei-Pon-Tao (also known as Pun
Tao King) died and was buried in Jatti Tunggal, Jolo. Annually, ori
December 26, the Chinese of Jolo until these days visit the tomb of
Pei-Pon-Tao to pay homage to the forerunners of Sino-Philippine
relations.
Centuries of trade and personal relations with the Chinese
inevitably led to the enrichment of Filipino lifeand culture. Decorated
enameled ceramics painted in traditional patterns were exported in
the Philippines. The blue-and-whitepiecesof Chinese porcelain had
their origins in the Ming period.
The manufacture of gunpowder, the art of me tallu rgy, the use
of porcelain, gongs, lead, silver, tin, and certain occupations like
blacksmithing and goldsmithing in the country were learned from
the Chinese. The Filipinos practiced a form of duck culture around
Pateros and Taguig in Rizal that resembled the Chinese, which
includes themethod of artificial incubation of eggs. They also taught
th Filipinos kite-flying and othergames including various formsof
gambling like jueteng,kuwaho, and pangginggi . ·
The Chinese improved the culinary art of the early Filipinos.
From them, the natives learned the roasting of pigs, the brewing of
teafordrinkingand thecooking of dishes like pancit,lumpia,chopsuey,
and okoy. TheChinese also taught the Filipinos the use of seasonings
'
50
liketoyo (soysauce)and tahuri,and plantvegetables likebataw,petsay
and upo. · ·
During the early times, the Filipino manner of dressing bore
Chinese traces. The sleeved jackets (kangan) of the- Filipino males, .
the loose trousers of the Muslim women of Mindano, and the use of
slippers, wooden shoes(bakya), fans and umbrellas were of Chinese
on•gm• .
. The social customs of the early Filipinos showed Chinese
influence. Among them were the arrangement of marriage by the
parents of the boy and the girl, the hiringof a go-between in marital
negotiations, the honoring of d e p a r t e d ancestors a n d the
e p l o y m e n t of professional mourners during the funeral.
Certain existing social customs bear indication. s of Chinese.
origin like the blastingof firecrackers on New Year's Eve, the beating
of gongs to celebrate a feast, and the collection of tong (percentage
fee) by the owner of a gambling joint. Haggling between the
merchant and the t o m e r toarrive at a price for a commodity is
another practice tha:t the natives have learned from them.
The linguistic influence of China on the Filipino language is
quite exceptional. About 1,500 Chinese loan words are included in
the present vocabulary of the ilipinos. These words usually pertain
to kinship and family relations, clothes, ornaments, food and drinks,
agriculture and commerce, toolsand occupations, and abstract ideas.
Among these are as follows:ate (oldersister),sanse (third oldersister),
kuya (older brother), diko (second older brother), sangko (third older
brother), suki (friend), gunting (scissors), hiya (shame), pakyaw
(wholesale), and susi (key).
In the 13th century, Japan was said to have traded with the
Philippines based from the early historical records in Ryukyu.
Japanese wakos (pirate-traders)sailed the Orient waters, and many
of them were able to reach the Philippine archipelago. The Japanese
made someearlycontributions to Filipino culture and economy. They
taught our people some industries such as the manufacture of arms
and tools and the tanning of deerskins.
In the middle of the 14th century, the Muslim traders from
Malaysia brought Islam (in Arabic means "submission to the will of
God") to the Philippines. It spread through the southern partsof the
islands. Historians say Tuan Masha'ika brought the Islamic faith in
51
book.
book.
done during the lunar month of Ramadan (the ninth month of the
Arabic calendar).
R a ma d a n commemorates the Holy Q u r ' a n ' s revelation
(Chapter II, Verse 185) to Prophet Muhammad Sallalahu Alaihi
Wassalam. During the period of fasting, all Muslims must refrain
from eating, drinking, and sexual intercourse from daybreak to
sunset. Thesick, travelers, and menstruating women are exempted
from fasting but they have to make up the days they skipped at a
laterdate. Islam celebrates Eid ul-Fitr or the Festival of Breaking the
Fast,after thesighting of the crescent moon at the end of Ramadan.
(Republic Act 9177 declared Eid ul-Fitr ·a national holiday in the
Philippines to be observed not only by Muslims but·also by
Christians.).This is a day on which the Muslims are called upon tQ
visit one·another and exchange greetings among themselves.
Considered the sixth pillar of Islam by some Muslims is the
jihad,which in Arabicmeans "to struggle"or "to exhaust one'seffort"
in order to pleaseGod. Within the belief of Islam, jihad refers to living
a virtuous life, helping oth_er Muslims and preaching Islam. It has
lately evolved to holy war, which focused on the militant
interpretation of the jihad. .
Islam had left her lasting.impression on the life and culture of
the Muslim Filipinos, which include the Maranao·s of Lanao,
Maguindanaons of Cotabato, Samals of Zamboanga, Yakans of
Basilan, and Tausugs of Sulu. The mosque is their special place of
worship and point of convergence for social activity. It was built as
a link to Mecca.
With Islam, came the sultanate form of government, together
with the title of political dignitaries, such as sultan (suprem_e ruler)
raja muda (heir apparent), dayang (princess), and kali ijudge); the
Arabic alphabet, Islamic holidays, and the Arabic arts.
Singkil (a Marartao word for "getting a leg or foot entangled in
an object") originated from Lanao del Sur.The dancers with solemn
faces and dignified pose,dressed in elegant Muslim costumes begin
dancing in a slow pace, which soon progresses to a faster tempo to
the rhythmicclapping of crisscrossed bamboos. The ladiesgracefully
wave big f a ns while the m e n glide w i t h brightly color.ed
handkerchiefs.
When performed by ladies of the royalty of Lanao, the dance is
usually ushered by a waiting lady, who holds an exquisitely
54.
.
embellished umbrella over the Princess' head wherever she goes.
Legend has it that singkil originated from the time the diwatas
(nymphsor fairies) played a joke on Princess Gandingan as she was
on a s tro ll. The diwatas caused the trees to tremble and the rocks to
roll;'however, the princess skipped nimbly·from place to place
unharmed.
In their artworks, the Maranaos used the okir or okkil design, a
curvilinear floral design. The different types of okkil design appear
as border decoration on the cover and in the pages of the Qu'ran.
They are also replicated in furniture, boats, farm implements,
silverware, brassware, jewelry, and ceramics. Similar okir designs
were also made on ancestral houses called torogan.
.
· The indigenous bird motif, the sarimanok, is also said to have
been developed by the Maranaos. It is decorative in nature, having
the appearance of a bird or rooster holding a fish in its claws or.
beak.
Another artistic expression by the Muslims is the Tausug kris.
This is a zigzag type of sword . These swords were not only used as
weapons but also considered as great works of arts, at times inlaid
with silver and gold or pearls. One fearsome weapon was the lantaka
(swivel gun) placed on flexible beams that allowed the gunner to
pursue a moving target.
The people in a society collectively create and preserve culture.
The Fiµpino people culturally evolved because they were abl-e to
excha.nge their thoughts with others through communication. The
transmission of ideas a n d skills w a s mad e possible through
interaction since the early Filipinos no longer lived in complete
isolation.
The ancient Filipinos prior to the coming of Spaniards have
already possessed a distinctive culture as proven by the material
remains of pastsocieties. They were not uncivilized but intrinsically
endowed with abilities to stand as equal to people elsewhere in the
world.
2. Traditional Filipino
.
Communities
Early Filipino settlements varied in population sizes. Somewere
inhabited by thousands of people whileothersweresmall,composed
only of a few scattered family members. The u n i t o f social
'
55
.
organization with broader political,economic, and religiou-s features
than thefamily was the barangay,headed by the nativechieftain called
datu or rajah.
Consolidation of barangays was formed through ma.rriages and
blood compact, locally known as sandugu. This traditional ceremony
signifies that the partakers of such rite become blood brothers,
presumably because the sameblood now flowed in their veins. They
drew blood from their arms and mixed it with wine, which they
shared and drank at the same time as viewed by witnesses.
Chroniclers noted and characterized the social stratification
system of pre-colonial Filipino community organization based on
wealth, political influence and social privileges en joyed . The r
were as follows: (1) the datu classor the rulingclass; (2) the maharlika
or the aristocracy; (3) the timagua (pronounced timawa) or the
common class; and the (4) alipin (also known as uripon among the
Visayans) or the dependent class.
The datu or rajah ruled the barangay. Since the term barangay
came from the word balangay, which means boat, Fr. Juan de
Plasencia, a Spanish chronicler in the 16th century, speculated that
the role of the datu arose from the captain of a boat migrating to the
Philippines with his family,relatives, d servants. Miguelde Loarca,
in his Relacion de las Islas Filipinas (1582) said that the datus who live
in the same town obey the wealthiest among them. Furthermore,
Antonio de Morga in his Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas mentioned that
only the best warriors were obey.ed.
The Boxer Codex, an anonymous late 16th century manuscript
mentioned thatonly men werequalified for the title. Thedatu's power
depends upon the faithfulness of his follow.ers.
The datu exercised administrative powers. In arriving at
important decisions, the datu alsoexercised legislative powers, calJi:og
his people all together and securing their consent..He had the duty
to protect his community.
A datu also was given judicial powers since he could render
judgment in any dispute. He should hear the testimony of the
claimants before handling down the verdict. His decision could be
appealed to an arbiter of the claimants' choice from another
community.
Control over disposition of barangay real property was vested
in their nativechief.The chieftain received the agricultural produce,
56
' Materya!es na naka-copyright
personal services as well as -respect from his people. He took his
share of the hc\rvest as tribute except from the aristocracy or the
maharlika.
Other historians include the family, relatives, and elders of the
datu as members of the aristocracy. The maharlikas were believed to
be the descendants of mixed marriages between a ruling dynasty
and one out of power. ·
Thetimawa classenjoyed their rights toa portion of the barangay
land. Their no obligation was agricultural labor but they were
alsocalled to catch fish, to accompany expeditions, or paddle boats.
They werealsocalled out for irregular services like supporting feasts
and building ho1:15e5.
An alipi was a man indebted to _another. His creditor could
h a v e been a datu, maharlika, timawa, or another alipin. His
subordination was obligatory. Aperson may be born alipin,for that
reason he was called gintubo. He inherits the debt of his parents.
The degree of alipin indebtedness may vary. For example, if alipin
and timawa marry, their offspring would be half-alipin where he
would only work half of his father's obligation.
There were two kinds of alipin, the aliping namamahay and the
aliping sagigilid. The alipin with land rights was called namamahay
(householder). He owned_ a house. He came at his master's call to
work on thefieldsand do otherservices. Amanenters the namamahay
statuseither byinheritance from namamahay parents, droppingdown
from the timawa status or rising from the sagigilid status.
Thealiping sagigilid (gilid is the partof the house where the stove
is) were members of the master's household who ate from their
master's pot. They may be transferred to another creditor at any
moment and may be rewarded at their master's pleasure. Slaves
purchased from outside the community and captives in battles or
raids w e included in the sagigilid status'.
Thedependent population whom theSpanishchroniclers called
slaves were released from dependence by paying back debts, by
marriage, by purchase or by the voluntary act of the master.
The barangay had both oral and written laws. The oral laws
were then customs (ugalt), which had been-handed down from
generation· to generation. The written laws were promulgated by
datus with the help of the council of elders. However, these laws
may be changed by consensus among ruliri.g datus or by any among
57
them powerful enough to do so.Such written laws werea.nnounced
to the people by a barangay crier known as umalohokan.
The u n w r i t t e n codes of c o n d u c t w e r e strictly o b e y e d .
•
Righteousness was cabanalan and an upright person was described
banal. Any w r o ngdoing w o ul d mean reprehension f r o m the
community leaders and mo_re importantly, from the supernatural
beings. When a witness was called to testify against anybody, it was
customary to say, "May lightning strike me if I am telling a lie. May
the heavens or the sun fall upon me if I will tell a lie."
They believed thatafter death, thesoul would travel toanother
world to receive due reward or punishment. The good soul would
go tokalwalhatian (stateof bliss) according to the Tagalogs and ologan,
to the Visayans. The bad soul would go to a place of doom called
kasamaan by the Tagalogs and solad bythe Visayans.
Aside from theirstrongbelief for life afterdeath,archaeological
sites show that there was a·local form of an.cestor worship. Early
Filipino contacts with other Asians brought about changes in the
belief system like theanito concept to honor ancestors. The Visayans
called their ancestor spirits umalagad (from the word alagad or
follower). The notion of diwatas (spirits) that dwell in nature was
also pervasive in the Visayas and Mindanao. ·
The abstract ideaof religion was concretely shown irt sculptured
objects known as licha (pronounced likha) or larawan, reverently
worshipped by the natives.TheCordillera people carved anito figures
called bulol, signifying as ancestral spirits and granary gods. This
statue was placed in frontof the doorof a rice warehouse to serveas
caretaker.
Asidefrom sculptured objects, the relationship between ancient
spirits and men were expressed in elaborate paintings executed on
the bodiesof human beings. Tattooing, as believed by some people,
was. done as a thanksgiving offering to the gods, while others in
many instances, had it done toacquire protective powers fromspirits
or were applied after a man had shown remarkable courage in battle.
The supreme godof the Tagalogs was Bathala or Abba. He was
s a i d to inhabit a faraway realm of eternal space k n o w n as
kalwalhatian. For the Bontoks and Kankanays of the Central
Cordillera, Lumawig was the creator and preserver of life. Among
the lfugaos, the highestof all their deitiesis Kabunian,who dwells in
the fifth region of the universe.
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Materyales na naka-co yright

book.
book.
Ancient songs exhibited varied emotions, with themes about
love, war, labor, religion, and death. Among these were as follows:
tagumpay, Tagalog song of victory; ayeg-klu, Igorot serenade song;
bactal,Tagbanua death song; and tudob,Agusan harvest song.
Ethnic dances, which had been partof every tribe and culture,
reflected the sentiments and artistry of the populace. Their dances,
customarily light-hearted and mimetic, were in connection withtheir
beliefs in spirits, in thanksgiving and healing, in courtship. Some of
the nativedances included the mahinhin,a Tagalog courtship dance;
the dandansoy, a Visayan tuba dance; the sua-sua dance; a Sulu
courtship dance and the paunjalay, a Muslim Wedding darice.
Theater originated within theearlycommunities thtoo.gh ritual
practitioners in theirdance-dramas to appeasesupernatural powers
that were believed to control natural forces, to ensure good harvest
and success in hunting and battles.
Kali, later called arnis during the Spanish era, w s popular all
over the islands. It was a method of self-defense with instruments
made of rattan canesor betel nut tree trunks. As an artof batttle, the
kali requires basic skills for parrying, offense, and defense.
In commerce, the early Filipinos had their own weights and
measures. They used the talaro, a kind of balance with scales, for
weighing things. ·Measurement for capacity were the kaban (25
gantas), the salop (one ganta), the kaguitna (one-half ganta}, and the
gatang (one chupa). For length, measures used were the dipa, the
length of the outstretched arms; the tumuro, the length between the
tip of the thumb and that of the forefinger when extended; the
sandamak, the width of the hand with the five fingers pressed
together; and the sandali, the width of one finger.
Theyalso knew theartof coinage and hadgold used as medium
of exchange. Modern numismatists call these ancient gold coins
piloncitos (little cones) because of their conical shape.
Shells and bronze gongs were also used as money in exchange
of other goods. However, the usual method of trading during those
times was barter in which they offered their own products in
exchange of other goods. Aside from rattan, pearls, precious shells,
and other marine and forest products, theearly Filipinos traded their
native merchandise such as baskets·and mats. Nontextile weaving
industry in the.archipelagowasa resultof theproliferation of organic
materials such as bamboo, rattan,.vines, and rono reeds.
61
Materyales na naka.-copyright
To the mountain peopleof Cordillera, a basket was a functional
household or agricultural container. This light bushel was essential
in carrying clothes and vegetables especially in a rugged terrain.
The multi-purpose backpack was the best known Cordillera basket.
The Ilocanos had produced baskets for storing valuables and their
clothes, the tampipi. The Hanunuo of Mindoro had embellished
baskets to hold betel nut chewing ingredients, beads or money.
Mat-making was also popular in the islands. Various palms .
were sources for this flourishing ind ustry. The natives made
distinctively large mats for sleeping. Mats were also fashioned as
home furnishings to sit on and receive distinguished guests. Sulu
·mats were the most intricately woven. They colorfu ly dyed
p a n d a n u s mats and occasionally incorporated symbols and
geometric designs.
The early natives also knew mathematics. They could count
up to 100,000,000 (bahala) and could add, subtract, multiply, and
divide. The termsfor numericals wereas follows: isa (one), puo(ten ),
daan (hundred), libo(thousand), yuta (one hundred thousand), angao
(one million), kati (ten million), and bahala (one hundred million).
They also l e a m e how to calculate time and identify seasons
by reading the signs of nature. The early or late flowering of certain
plants could indicate a long dry season or early rains.
The Ifugaos, on the other hand, devised a calendar, which
contains 13 months in a year, each month having 28 days. Some
members of thisethnic groupstillutilize thiscalendar method. They
had a tribal calendar recorder called tumunoh, who kept 13 strings
representing the 13 months of the year. At the end of each day, the
tumunoh tied a knot per string to show.that a day had passed. A
string with 28 knot-s represents one month. The lfugao calendar has
a total of 364 day sa year.
The early inhabitants also had some knowledge of medicine.
Folk healers applied certain roots and leaves, flowers and fruits,
branches and pistils of plants containing substances with curative
powers.
Long before the coming of the Spaniards, the natives of the
islands were already wearing clothes. Men wore collarless, short
sleeved coat called kangan and a stripof cloth called bahag, wrapped
around the waist and between the legs. Usually, they wore putong,a .
pieceof cloth wornaround thehead. Though they had no footwear,
62
they wore jewels such as gold necklaces, gold armlets called
kalombigas, and gold anklets filled with agates, carnelians and other
colored glass.·
The women wore a wide-sleeved blouse called baro. Theirskirt
was called patadyong. Their personal trimmings consisted of
necklaces, bracelets, earrings and rings made of gold at times filled
with pearls, carnelian beads, and other precious gems. Numerous
types of glass and tone beads have been unearthed in Philippine
archaeological sites, providing substantial proof of early trade
relations of the archipelago with foreign lands.
One personal garb in the islands was the salakot (native hat),
worn as protection from heat or sudden rain. Generally made of
anahaw (a forest palm), the salakot was widely used in Central Luzon
and the Visayas. The Ilonggots used leather (fromanimals they hunt)
in making shallow hats, while neighboring Bontoks used coiled
. rattan. The Ifugaos, on the other han:d, wore perfectly fitted carved
bowl-like hats, while the Maranaos and the Bagobos (Davao) made
wooden hats as shields for combat.
When the first Spaniards arrived in the 16th century, they were
surprised to see the early Filipinos living.in these well-organized
and independent villages, the barangays. The nativedwellers lived
in houses made of wood and bamboo, roofed by nipa palm leaves
called bahay kubo (nipa hut). Other materials used include yantok
(rattan), cogon grass, stone, and clay.
These houses were elevated three to four meters from the·
ground and usually supported by four or more posts made of wood
or bamboo. The space beneath the house called silong, served as
workspace, storage space, a granary or pen for livestock. A hagdan
(ladder), which could be d.rawn up at night or when the owners of
the house went out, was used to enter the nipa hut.
The roof of the bahay kubo may be constructed on the ground,
then completed over the house frame. The wall was built from nipa
shingles or bamboo. The tinilad na kawayan (bamboo slats) which
served as the floor of the house, were set slightly apart to induce
ventilation. The doors, as well as the stairs were made of bamboo.
The windows of the house differ in'size, with a tukod (mast) to prop
theswinging cover open during the day.
. .
The principal space inside the bahay kubo, called the bulwagan,
about tensquare meters in area or larger,could be used for receiving
••
63
guests, dining, and sleeping. Furniture in the bahay kubo is minimal,
commonly with a low table for meals called dulang and a built-in
seat called papag. Asmall silid (room) served as a dressing room and
closet for clothes, pillows,and mats.
There were houses with an o n. porch called batalan, an
unroofed platform, where water jars are placed. Sometimes the
cooking was done in an open hearth or on a clay kalan (stove) or
a
tungkong kalan (three stones) in space in front of the ladder of the
batalan.
The structure and design of the native houses resulted from
· various factors that may bedictated by the natural setting,available
resources, customs, beliefsand needs.ofthe occupants. Theseafaring
Samal built their houses over the wafer, along the seashore. Their
domiciles were on stilts, high enough to let their boats dock under
them even at high tide. Footbridges madeof planks were connected
to these clustered dwellings. The Badjao lived in houseboats. The
Bagobos of Davao del Sur and the Kalinga of the Mountain Province
built houses on trees for protection from enemies and wild animals
on the ground.
Cats were kept in most houses to get rid of rats. There were
also dogs and pet monkey-s to warn the household members of
approaching strangers.
64
•
. Materyales na naka-copyright
Chapter Test No. 3
N ame: _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ D t : _ --,---- _
Course, Year,and Section: _
I. Multiple Choice: Choose the letter with the correct answer. ,

Write your answers on the blanks p r o v i d : (20 pts.)
1. The term Nusantao h,as this meaning. ·
a. maritime-orientedprehistoric people
b. hunting and g a t h e gpopulation
c. Austronesians fromSouthChina and Taiwan
d. peoplespeaking Proto-Austronesianlanguage
'
2. This theory maintains that the early inhabitants

originated fromSouth China and Taiwan, and front
there spread southward and westward.
a. Mainland Hypothesis
b. Mainland Origin Hypothesis
'
c. Island Origin Hypothesis

d. Evolution Theory
3. He undertook the analysis of the Tabon skullcap
and mandible in 1975 and discovered that the
earliest inhabitant of the islands died due to a fall
or a blow to the head.
a. Neil McIntosh c. K.C. Chang
b. Peter Bellwood d. Wilhelm Solheim II
4. These are large rounded stones f o u n d in the
riverbeds used as tools by the native settlers.
a. core tools c. pebble tools
b. flake tools d. cobble tools
'
5. · This is first metal to be widely used by the early
. Filipinos.
a. bronze c. r•ron
b copper d. gold
65
Materya!es na naka·copyright
book.
book.
3. Laka.mbacod c. for good health
4. Lakambini d. supreme god of the
Ifugaos
5. Bibit e. guard of the crops
Set2
Basi a. Igorot wine made from
1 n.ee
.
2. Lambanog b. from coconut and nipa
palm
3. Pangasi c. Visayan wine made
from rice
4. Tapuy d. Ilokano wine made
from sugarcane
5. Tu ba . e. distilled tuba
Set3
1. Barimbaw a. Tagalog jaw harp
2. Kulintang b. Ilokano reed flute
3. Silbay c. Muslim xylophone
Set4 4. Kudyapi d. Maguindanaoan gong
5. Babandil e. Tagalog guitar
1. Kinnoton a. Muslim wedding

dance
2. Paunjalay b. Ilokano ant's dance
3. Mahinhin c. Visayan tuba dance
4. Dandansoy d. Tagalog courtship
dance
m. Essay:5.
(10Kumintang
pts. each) e. Tagalog war dance
1. How did th teachings of Islam influence the Filipino
society?
2. Discuss the cultural evolution of the early inhabitants of
the Philippines.
68
The Spanish Era
1. In Search of New Lands

In the last two centuries of the Middle Ages (1300-1500); the
Europeans, while regaining the Holy Land from the Muslims, were
able to establish commerce with the Orient through trade routes.
Spices like pepper, g e r, n u t m e g , onions, and garlic were the most
important items of trade from the East, owing to the desire of the
Europeans to enhance the taste of food and to preserve meat during .
winter time.
The fall of Constantinople (1453) and the emergence of the
Ottoman Turks closed the former trade routes to the East, causing
the monarchs and navigators of Europe to find new r9utes across
the seas.The Portuguese were a few years ahead of the Spaniards in
the discovery of new trade routes. Inspired by Prince Henry, the
Navigator (1394-1460), Portuguese navigators·sailed down the
African coast to reach the East. In 1487, led by Bartolome Dias, the
· Portuguese rounded the Cape of Good Hope: A few years later, in
1498; Vasco de Gama reached Calicut, India, by sailing eastward
from the cape.
· The end of the reconquistas (wars against the Moors) in 1492,
paved the way for great voyages including.the discovery of the New
World (America) for Spain. Christopher Columbus, who had failed
to convi,n e the King of Portugal that he could reach the East by
sailing westward, was able to get thesupport of the Spanish Crown.
After these remarkable voyages, Porrugal and Spain became
keen rivals in colonizing new landsbecause of gold , spices,and other
merchandise found in the Orient, as well as their religious zeal to
proselytize the natives.
On May 3, 1493, Pope Alexander VI, attempting to settle the
•
rivalry, issued a papal bull known as the Inter caetera. The Pope
decreed that the Spanish zone of exploration should be west of the
imaginary linedrawn north to south,100leagues west of the Azores
and Cape Verde Islands. Alllandseastof the demarcation lineshould
69
book.
'
Santiago, San Antonio,and Victoria together with about 250men. The

expedition intended to circumnavigate the earth in the service of
Spain. Accompanying him were Fr. Pedro de Valderrama (fleet
chaplain), Antonio Pigafetta (chronicler of the expedition), Duarte
Barbosa (Magellan's brother-in-law),and his Malay slave Enrique
of Malacca (acting as interpreter).
The fleet sailed through familiar waters along the westcoast of
Africa. They reached the Canaries on September 26. Crossing the
Atlantic, theylanded on theSouthAmerican coa_st, nowPemambu,co
Brazil, on November 29. Magellan continued the voyage, reach_ing
Rio de Janeiro on December 13. He named it Santa Lucia, because
he landed there on the saint's feast day. There they traded with the
native Americans for provisions.
The voyage continued at Rio de Plata. By the time they wereat
the tip of theSouth American continent, it was already winter. The
snowstorms were in a headstrong. The men became apprehensive
and asked Magellan that theyall return toSpain. Magellan declined.
Instead, heasked them to take courage. Theships took shelter from
storms in Port San Julian (now in Argentina) in March 1520.
Unknown to Magellan, some officers took into command the
maneuvering of threeships, the San Antoni,otheConcepcion, and the
Victoria. Thenextday,Gaspar de Quesada, captain of theConcepcion,
wrote to Magellan that he and others would not recognize his
authority unless they return immediately to Spain. Still, Magellan
refused to heed their petition.
Juan de Cartagena, Antonio de Coca, Juan Sebastian del Cano,
(called Elcano) and Gaspar de Quesada were found guiltyof treasoJ.1
butpardoned. ButCartagena continued to plot again, this time with
oneof the priests, PeroSanchez de Reina.They were probably jealous
because the captain-general of this Spanish expedition was a
Portuguese. Magellan had the two left off the coast of an unnamed
island:
•
With thefustsignsof spring, theexploratory voyage continued
insearch ofa route totheSouthern Sea (now PacificOcean). Astrong
typhoon haddrivenashore and destroyed the smallest ship, Santiago.
In August, the four ships went farther south and eventually, they
cameupona strait which Magellan called "Strait ofAllSaints'! (now
. Strait of Magellan).
71
book.
Subsequently, Magellan's men held a mock fight. The soldier
in a suit of armor remained unhurt even after he was struck·. Rajah
Kolambu was fascinated and noted that one man in such attire was
worth 100 fighters. These newcomers could help them win their
battles. Thus, the rajah decided to- seal their new. friend ship:
Afterwards, he performed the kasi kasi or blood compact ceremony
with Magellan on March 29, Good Friday.
· On Easter Sunday, March31,1521, a mass was heldon Masao's
shore with Reverend Father Pedro de Valderrama officiating. At
sundown, Magellan, in the presence of Spaniards and Filipinos,
planted a large wooden cross on the summit of a hill overlooking
the sea. He named the country the Islas de San Lazaro.
Noted historian Dr.Sonia M. Zaide presented the evidence for
Masao rather than Llmasawa as the siteof the first recorded mass in
the Philippines. First, in all primary sources including the diary of
Antonio Pigafetta, the chronicler of Magellan's voyage, the nameof
the place was Mazaua. Limasawa has foursyllables and begins with
· another letter. Second, according to primary records, the expedition
traveled 20 to 25leagues from Homonhon, the first landing point. If
they had been to Llmasawa Island, the distance is only14.6 leagues
or one-half of that length. Third, the distance to Cebu from Mazaua
according to Pigafetta was 35 leagues (140 mil ). Thedistance from
Limasawa to Cebu is only 80 miles. Fourth, it was mentioned that
the king came to their ship in a balanghai. Butuan is now the site of
at least nine excavated balanghai relics; by contrast, Limasawa has
no significant archaeological relics or balanghai tradition. Fifth, the
Western explorers got excited at the abundance of gold in Mazaua,
for that was the main currency at that time. Both archaeological
relics and the gold mines today attested to the abundaI_1ce of gold in
the Agusan Valley.
On April 7, 1521, Magellan together with King Kolambu and
the Spanish and native fleets landed on Sugbu (now Cebu). On the
sameday, Humabon made a blood c mpact with Magellan after the
latter had won his trust and friendship.
Asked who would succeed him, Rajah Humabon told Magellan
that he had no sons, only daughters. His nephew who.had married
hisdaughter was therefore the crown prince. Rajah Humabon a<;lded
that parents were no longer honored in their old age and instead
theirchildren commanded them. Magellan explained to the Cebuano
73
chieftain the Christian teaching about honoring one's parents. This
confounded Rajah Humabon. Soon, he sought to be baptized as a
Christian.
On Sunday, April 14, 1521, a mass on the shore of Cebu was
held with Rajah Humabon and his people attending the ceremony.
After the mass, Magellan planted a huge wooden cross and gave
Lisabeta (renamed Queen Juana after baptism for the mother of King
Charles I of Spain), wife of Rajah Humabon, an image of the Child
Jesus as a gif_t. There were about 800 Filipinos who participated in
the ss and underwent ritual baptism. As for Humabon (renamed
C-arlos), Magellan made him the king's representative in Cebu and
promised to unite the local chieftains under his authority. Magellap
Ukewise tried to impose Christianity and Spanish sovereignty on
local chieftains.
Rajah Hu mabon and Datu Zula of Mactan welcomed the
Spaniards, but not Lapulapu another chieftain of Mactan. Lapu
lapu's real name was Cali Pulacu as written by Carlos.Calao, a
Chinese-Spanish poet in the 171l1 century in his poem Que Dios Le
Perdone (That God May Forgive Him). This was a result of the
· resea rch of Prof. Gu . illermo Gomez-Rivera, a.1975 Zobel Prize
awardee.
Lapulapu refused to accept the new political system and pay
tribute. He decided to break away from Rajah Humabon. To teach
him a lesson, Magellan invaded Mactan on April 27,1521. He led an
army of 60 steel-dad Spaniards in three vessels and 1,000 Cebuano
warriors in 30 boats. He told Rajah Humabon and his men to stay
on their boats, watch how the Europeans fight.
Magellan had misjudged the fighting skill of Lapulapu and his
men. The Mactan warriors repulsed the Spanish force with their
spears and bamboostakes. They aimed theirspearsat the unshielded
legsof th. e Europeans. The Spaniards were forced to go back to their
boats.
Magellan was wounded in the battle. A poisoned arrow hit his
right legand then a bamboospear struck his face. Lapulapu and his
fighters pounced and killed him.Theremaining Europeans retreated
and left the body of their captain behind.
.
The Battle of Mactan was a scandalous defeat for theSpaniards
for they were not able to prove themselves better in combats. On
May 1, the natives of Cebu carried out the plan to massacre them.
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King Ouu-les Iof Spain abdicated his royal crown after getting
weary of f;.r rangingduties brought about byhis scattered dominion.
His son Philip Il succeeded as ruler of the Netherlands in 1555 and
Spain in 1556.
•
During the reignof King Philip II, Spain wasat the height of its
power. Hewrote to Mexican Viceroy Velascoordering him to prepare
an expedition for the conquest of the Philippines. The command of
this expedition was given to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi (1505-1572),
a sold.ier, lawyer,and administrator. Since the Mexican government
wasthen in thebrinkof bankruptcy, Legazpispenthis own resources
to finance the expedition.
Legazpi and his fleet, consisting of four ships with 380 men,
left Natividad, Mexico, on November 19,1564 (some say November
20, a Monday). Besides royal officials and crew, five Augustinian
friars joined the expedition. Legazpi was accompanied by Father
Andres de Urdaneta (survivor of theLoaysa expedition), and Captain
Felipe de Salcedo (Legazp i' s grandson), Guido de Lavezaris
(survivor of the Villalobos expedition), and Melchor de Legazpi
(Legazpi's son). Thefleetstopped in Guam, and there obtained fresh
water and supplies.
On February 13, 1565, Legazpi and his men anchored near the
island of Cebu. Due to Cebuano opposition, they sailed to the
neighboring islands and landed in Samar. Legazpi made a blood
compact with Urrao, a friendly chief, on February 22. They
proceeded to Limasawa and were received by a young chieftain
named Bankaw.
Later, Legazpilanded in Bohol and befriended twonative kings,
Sikatuna andSigala. On March16,1565, Legazpi andSikatuna made
a blood compact. A few days later, Legazpi and Gala did a similar
pact.
On April 27, 1565, Legazpi arrived in Cebu and hit the shore.
Rajah Tupas and his Cebuano waniors challenged theenemy forces
but were overpowered by the Spaniards. Soon, the natives burned
their houses and retreated to the uplands. .
The next day, April 28, one of Legazpi's men, a Greek sailor·
named Mermeo (others say Juan de Camuz) discovered the image
of the Sto. Nino in one of the houses. Viewing it as a sign of God's
approval, Legazpi named the first settlement Ciudad del Santissimo
Nombre de Jesus (City of the Most Holy Name of Jesus), in honor of
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Rajah Tupas also accepted baptism. Legazpi stood as the
godfather. He was named Felipe,·in honor of Philip II. His son,
Pinsuncan waslikewisebaptized and wasnamed Carlos. The natives
followed the same.
In 1569, Legazpi transferred to Panay due to meager food
provisionsin Cebu. Meanwhile, hesent his grandson back toMexico
with his first reports to theSpanish King. On the bankof the Panay
River, the second Spanish settlement was foun d ed . Due to the
continuing apostolic work of Fr. Juan de Alba an-d other Augustinian
missionaries, the people became friendly to Legazpi. Two chiefs of
Panay, Datus Macabaog and Madidong became Christians.
In1570,Legazpisenthis grandson, Juande Salcedo whoarrived
in Cebu from Mexico in1567, toMindoro to punish the Moro pirates
whoplundered upon Panay's villages. With30Spaniards andseveral
hundreds of Visayans, Salcedo destroyed the Moro forts in Din and
Lubang (islets nearMindoro).
OnMay8,1570, Marshal Martin de Goiti and his men left Panay.
With a force of 120 Spaniards and 600 Visayans, they explored the
Pansipit River in Batangas. Native volunteers whohad already made
friends with the Spaniards joined Goiti's men to avenge the harm
done to them by ostile neighboring villages.
From the bay, Goiti saw on the south bank of the Pasig River a
wall protecting a port. He sent his interpreter ashore to invite the
local chief to a conference, which Rajah Matanda and his nephew
Rajah Sulayman.(or Soliman) accepted.
RajahSulayman led Goiti toa house and they sealed their new
alliance with the traditional kasi kasi. But the Maynilad chief
remaiiled restive, knowing.that hehad more men than thestrangers.
•
Goiti landed his 80fightersagainst Sulayman's fort, (wttere Fort
Santiago stands today) and ordered his men to destroy the artillery.
Sulayman defended his kingdom from the Spaniards who took the
offensive. Abl<><>4y hand-to-hand battle ensued un_tjl the Manilans
turned their backsas flames began toengulf their houses.Sulayman
and his warriors retreated across the river. Goiti and hismen captured
Maynilad on the 24th of May and seized some cannons that Panday
Pira had made for Sulayman.
After thebattle, Goiti returned toPanay. He told Legazpi about
the rich kingdom of Maynilad, a trading center where Chinese,
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across the mountains; and pacified Ilocandia and Cagayan in 1572.
Hefounded VillaFernandina de Vigan inhonorof Prince Ferdinand,
son of King Philip Il who died at the age of four. In recognition of
Salcedo's militaryservices, theSpanish CroWl) gave him encomienda
in Ilocos.
From Vigan, Salcedo explored the tip of Luzon. In 1573, he
conquered Camarines, Albay, and Catanduanes. The Bicolanos
refused to yield to them. The natives used their arrows against the
Spanish forces, however they hurriedly withdrew for their safety
after Salcedo firedhis guns.
· ThePhilippines wasa crowncolony considering shewas under
Spanish domination. From the beginning of Spanish rule in 1565 to
1821, the Philippines was a dependency of Mexico. The Mexican
viceroy, in the name of the Spanish King, administe·red the country.
After theindependence of Mexico fromSpain in 1821, the Philippines
came to be directly governed from Madrid. In 1863, the Overseas
Ministry (Ministerio de Ultramar) took over the functions of the
Council of the Indies (Consejo de Indi!Js).
The colonial code titled Recopilacion de leyes de los reynos de las
lndias (Compilation of Lawson Royal Landsin the Indies) popularly
known as Leyes de Indias (Laws of the Indies) issued in 1680, was
used by Spain to rule itsextensive possessions.
It was on November 16, 1568 when King Philip II issued
instructions to Legazpi to establish cities and towns and create
encomiendas to bedistnbuted to deserving soldiers.In the first three
decades of Spanish rule, the Philippines was divided into
encomiendas. With a cross in one hand and a sword in the other, the
Spanish conquistadores imposed upon the Filipinos this feudal
system of administration.The word encomienda comesfrom the verb
encomendar meaning "to com.mend or to commit to one's care".
Originally, an encomienda wasa feudalinstitution used in Spain
to reward deserving generals and conquerors during Spanish wars
of recovery of territory from the Moors. The earliest encomenderos in
the West Indieswere delegated with the power tocollect tribute and
to use the personal services of theinhabitants of their encomiendas.
This feudal grant was troduced by the Spanish Crown for
the combined purposes of rewarding deserving Spaniards and
attracting others to settle in the colonies. Permanent settlement of
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Opposition to colonial authority became quite difficult.
Although the Spaniards constituted a small number in the country,
they had conscripted natives from different regions to put down
revolts in other regions to remain in power.
Polo or forced labor instituted in 1580 was another form of
pacifying the natives. Male Filipinos between 16 to 60 years of age
rendered manual service for thecountry for the purpose of building
ships, churches, roads and other forms of infrastructure.
The polista or worker has to work 40 days a year in the labor
pool. In 1884, forced labor was reduced to 15 days a year. To be
excluded from the polo, one has to pay falla (exemptio fee), which
only a few Filipinos could actually pay. The chieftains and their
eldest sons were also excused from forced labor.
Polo led to the abandonment of the fields, separation from
families or homes, as well as illness and deathforsome. The alcaldes
often drafted hundreds of men, more than what was necessary for
woodcutting and then pocketed the money, which must l::!e paid for
the polistas.
Band.ala, which was instituted in the first half of the17'11century
}?y Governor General Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera was another
way to overpower the Filipinos. This refers to the assignment of
annual quotas to each province for the compulsory sale of products
to the government. Due to lack of funds, the government issued
promissory notes in exchange for the goods. Nonpayment on the
partof thegovernment meant seizure of products. Thesystem meant
virtual confiscation of products for the government that was usually
out of money; promissory notes were first givenin e x g e for the
goods.
The political condition in the Philippines was worsened with
the union of Church and State. The friars, like the government
officia ls, exercised political, economic, and other non-spiritual
powers. They controlled the educational system as well as the
collection of taxes and tlJ.e conscription of natives into thearmy. They
even controlled municipal elections and censored plays and reading
materials. So extensive was the so-called friar interference in the
country that in the 19th century, Filipino propagandists demanded
their expulsion.
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The tobacco monopoly raised much money for the colonial
government but resulted to the abuses of some crooked Spanish
officials. They often cheated the farmers in the payment of their
produce. The farmers on the other hand cultivated more than what
was required and hid their excess tobacco to be sold in the black
market. In 1882, Governor General Fernando Primo de Rivera
abolished the·monopoly. Private firms took control of the tobacco
business.
'
On March 10, 1785, King Charles Ill of Spain issued a royal

decree establishing the Real Compania de Filipinas (Royal Company
of the Philippines) to promote direct tradewithSpain and encourage
local agriculture and industry. The company was required to allot
4% of its profit for agriculture in the colony. However, the Royal
Crown abolished th company in 1834 because of big monetary losses
it incurred.
The galleon traders preferred to trade with Mexico. Likewise,
there were a growing number of foreign merchants in Manila.
Although the Royal Company did not succeed, it helped in the
further development of agriculture in the Philippines, particularly
indigo, sugar, and spices.
Go.vemor General Felix Berenguer de Marquina succeeded
Governor Basco. His first official ct was the demolition of nipa
houses in the city of Manila, which to him was an ugly sightand can
even cause fire. He also ordered the abolition of indulto de comercio
(license to trade), which gave the alcalde mayor (provincial governor)
the privilege to control the prices of goods in his province.
Monopolies on playing cards, gunpowder, and wine were also
abolished. He established the minting of money in the country to
preve_ntthe outflow ofgold_.
In 1842, Don Sinibaldo de Mas,an economist, was sent bySpain
to the Philippines to.make an economic survey of the country. In his
report, he made the following recommendatioI)S: first, the opening
of more Philippine ports to world trade; second, the encouragement
of Chinese immigration in the country to stimulate agricultural
development; and third, the abolition of the tobacco monopoly.
Theopening of the Philippines to world trade resulted to a great
demand for its products in the world market. This brought about
the need of machinery for massive production. The first steam
machine for hulling rice was introduced in 1836 by Eulogio de
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· 6. The first i s d Magellan

inthePhilippines sighted by and his men.
a. Sa.mar c. Cebu
'
b. Homonhon d. Leyte
7. They made the first'recorded blood compact in the annals
of Philippine history.
a. . RajahHumabon and Magellan
b. RajahSiagu and Magellan
c.Rajah Kolambu and Magellan
d. Sikatuna and Legazpi
8. From Homonhon, Magellan and his men traveled this
distance to M.azaua.
a. 14.6 leagues c. 35 leagues
b. 20 to 25leagues d. SOmiles
9. He was the first Filipino chieftain to be baptized as
Catholic.
a. Rajah Humabon c. Datu Zula
b. Rajah Kolambu d. RajahTupas
10 . The Spanish Crown granted h i m the motto Primus
Circumdedisti Me.
a. Ferdinand Magellan
b. Juan Sebastain del Cano
c. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi
d. Juan de Salcedo
11. Th_is post-Magellan expedition reached Mindanao but
failed to colonize yet it was able to rescuesurvivors of the
Loaysa expedition in Tidore, Moluccas.
a. Sebastian Cabot
'
b. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi
c. Alvaro Saavedra C.eron
d. Ruy Lopez e Villalobos
11. Sikatuna was a native king of this island.
a. Cebu c. Samar
b. Leyte d. Bohol
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After the missionaries had left, the Irrayas began their fight by
killing theoppressive encomenderos and burning their houses. After
this bloody incident, the rebels went up to the Basili River and built
their fortification on a rocky hill.
Fr.Santo Tomas returned and exhorted the leaders to lay down
their arms and promised them that the government would pardon
themand remedy their grievances. The revolt ended without a fight. .
7. The Revolt ofTamblot, Bohol (1621-22)

Caµse: Return to Native Religion
In 1621, Tamblot, a babaylan (native priest), reported the
appearance of a diwata who promised the peoplea lifeof abundance,
without the burden of p ying tribute to the government or dues to
the church. H persuaded the natives to abandon the Catholic
religion and rise against the Spaniards. Around, 2 000 Boholanos
responded to Tamblot's call.
They began the uprising at the time when most of the Jesuit
fathers, the spiritual administrators of the island, were in Cebu
celebrating the feast of the beatification of St. Francis Xavier. They
burned the villages being supervised by the Jesuits, as well as their
churches. They threw away all rosaries and crosses they could find.
News of the revolt reached Cebu. Don Juan de Alcarazo, the
alcalde mayor, sent immediately an expedition to Bohol, consisting
of 50 Spaniards and more than 1,000 natives from Cebu and
Pampanga. In the midst of a heavy downpour, Tamblot and his
followers were crushed.
8. Bankaw's Revolt, Leyte ( 1 6 2 2)

Cause: Return to Native Religion
Theleader of this rebellion was theaged chieftain of IJmasawa,
Bankaw, who was one of the first local leaders who received Miguel
Lopez de Legazpi in 1565. He had been previously converted to
Christianity and became loyal to Spain. But in his old age Bankaw
together with his sons and a native priest named Pagali, led the
people of Carigara, Leyte to rise in anns in defense of their old
religion. Soon they had the whole island into armed resistance. The
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Letters were sent to the people of Ilocos, Zambales, Pampanga
and Cagayan, inviting them to rise against the Spaniards. The
Pampangueftos under Maniagodid not join because they had already
made their peace with the Spaniards. .. . . . . ,,.. ·.
Toextend hissovereignty, Malong sent·6,000men .to Pampanga
and 3,000 men to Ilocos and Cagayan, leaving·2,000 men with him
in Pangasinan. But this depleted·his forces. The government troops
led by Don Felipe de Ugalde and D o n Francisco Esteban
outmaneuvered his army in Pangasinan; He 'was pursued. into the
mountains and was caught alive. He was exeruted together with
Vera, Pacadua and Macasiag in 1661 in Binalatongan. ..
. . . ..
•,
14. The Revolt of Gumapos (1661) -.
Cause: Continue Andres Malong's Revolt '
. .
Pedro G umapos and his army of Zambals killed ma ny

Spaniards in Ilocos. The Ilocanos did not join them for their loyalty
was to their property. During the Zambal invasion, they'·hid ·their
valuables in the Bishop's house and buried other properties.: . · ·
The bishop assembled the Zambals and threatened them with
excommunication the moment they get anything from the churches
or from his house. But the bishop's words fell on deaf ears.
. .
Gumapos's campaign ended afte-r an encounter with the
Spanish for_ces.· f o u r hundred rebels were slain and Gumapos
himself was taken prisoner and was later hanged in Vigan.
..
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15. The Revolt of Almazan ( 1 6 6 0 s )
Cause: Personal Ambitions
The flames of rebellion soon spread in Ilocos.with Pedro
Almazan as the defiant leader. Almazan, a rich chief of San Nicolas,
crowned himself King of Ilocos during the wedding ceremony of
his son to the daughter of another chief. He wore the crown of the
Queen of Angels taken from the church, which_ the rebels sacked.
The rebels were gainingsomeheadway at thestartbut theSp
eventually suppressed them. · · ·
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In Ma.rch 1764, Don Mariano de Arza together with 3,000 loyal
Ilocano soldiers suppressed the Revolt of Palaris in Pangasinan.
Palaris was publicly hanged.
20. Basi Revolt (1807)

Cause: Wine Monopoly of1786
Due to the wine monopoly of thegovernment, theIlocanos were
prohibited to drinkhomemade basi (wine fermented fromsugarcane).
They were compelled to buy wine from government stores. ·
On September 16, 1807, the Ilocanos of Piddig, Ilocos Norte,
rose in arms in defense of their favorite wine, basi. The rebellion
spread to the neighboring towns, Badoc and Santo Domingo.
The Spanish alcalde mayor, who was residing in Vigan, sent a
forceof 36soldiers and twocolumnsof civilian guards with a cannon
to attack Badoc. However, on September 28,1807, the alcalde mayor
together with a strong force of regular troops attacked them at San
Ildefonso and quelled the revolt.
21. Revolt in f e n s e o ft h eSp,a.nish Constitution (1815)

Cause: Abolition of the Liberal Spanish Constitution
.
The Spanish Constitution of 1812 was very much influenced
by the ideals of the French Revolution - Liberty, Equality, and
Fraternity. · This democratic constitution granted human rights to
both Spaniards and Filipinos. It was promulgated by the Spanish
Cortes (Parliament) and approved and signed by 184 delegates of
Spain and her colonies (including the Philippines). One of its
signatories was Ventura de los Reyes, a Filipino.
Upon knowing that this constitution was abolished on May 4,
1814 by the despotic ruler King Ferdinand VII, an explosion of
violence in the countryagainst the principales took place.The masses
suspected that theprincipales werebehind this, since they had been
presumed aiding the Spanish authorities to perpetuate in pow. er.
On March 3, 1815, more than 1,500 Ilocanos of Sarrat, Ilocos
Norte, u n d r theleadership of Simon Tomas rosein armsin defense
of the Spanish Constitution of 1812. The llocanos plundered the
houses of richSpaniards and pro-Spanish natives. They also looted
the churches and killed some friars and officials. The Spanish
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in Min d ana o·and Sulu·: 1n 1645, the Tausugs 'finally hbei'ate_d·: j t·o· :
from the Spanish forces. · · · · ·· · · ' · ' :·
. .
· In 1749, Sultan Ali.mud Din I was deposed. by his brother
Bantilan because of his friendship with the Spaniards. · On january ..
2, 1750, he and his- fami ly, together w1th sotnt:( faithfui·folf6Weij'f.:
arrived in Manila. The sultan was royally received by Bish91> Juan.,
de Arrechedera, the acting governor general. ·On April_ 28·of the
sameyear, he was baptized by the Dominican fath!!ts at Paniqui,··
Tarlac. He was named Don Fernando Alimud Dirt I, th·e first
Christian sultan of Jolo. His son, Israel, and his daughter: ' Fa fima' ··
were likewise converted to Christianity and.giyen• ed uca tio n' in
Manila. - : . . .. '. .. . ..
'
In 1751, Governor General Jose Francisco de Obandp·wanted '·

Alimud Din I to regain his throne in Jolo. The sultan left Manilaffo r -'
Jolo and stopped at Zamboanga. The Spanish ·command -r ih .
Zamboanga claimed to have intercepted a letter from Alimtid Din I
to a sultan in Mindanao, which was allegedly treasonable. Alimud
Din I was shipped back to Manila and later imprisone..at Fort
Santiago. ·· : . . • : , .··
Governor General Pedro Manue·l ·d.e Arandia, Oband' o ' $..
successor, released Alimud Din I and granted him royal privileges.·
In 1762, the British troops rescued Alimud Din I at Pasig and later ·
restored to him his throne in Jolo. · ·
The Spanish forces, plunged in its conflict with the British and
the local rebels were unable to control the Moro (plunderer) raids·
on Christian pueblos in the V1Sayas and Luzon. The·height of Moro
wars c u r r e d i n thesecond half of the 18 th century. ·In 1769, th·e
Moros landed at Malate and plundered the place:· . ' .·
• • , ·, 1 ' • ' .• ' • :
According toSpanish records, an average of 500Christians were

captured and sold annually as slaves in Betavia, Sandakan; and ·in
other slave markets in the East Indies. Th·e Spanish' government
· spent huge s u m of money for military operation·s against the
ma.rauding troops of the South. ·
In the closing decades of the 19th century, the Moro power
declined: In 1848, Governor General Narciso Claven.a , using I,tew· ·
steams hips,·attacked the Samals at Balanguingui. They·brought 350
Samal prisoners to Manila. · ·· · · ·
. · t rV'
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Spanish colonizers that the natives could not rise beyond their
'1imited intelligence" instigated the enlightened Filipinos to
struggle for equality. Jose Rizal's annotation of Antonio de
Morga's Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas denounced the allegations
of the Spaniards that the Filipinos were.savages and had no
culture prior to the coming of the Western colonizers.
•
4. Cultural changes. The educational reforms of 1863
dramatically improved the standards of education in the·
primary level. With the implementation of a new educational
system, qualified Filipinos were able to pursue higher
education. Young men from prosperous Chinese mestizo and
native families were able to take up law, medicine, and
pharmacy. They wereable tosee the repressive colonial policies
of Spain after being enlightened with liberal-ideas; thus, giving
birth to a new breed of Filipinos - the ilustrados (enlightened
ones).
Theilustrados got thechance to manifest their- olit·;:al will
whenCarlos Maria de la Torrebecamegovernorgeneral in 1869.
This benevolent governor was able to show his liberal
disposition in administering the government after he invoked
reforms in the government like the revocation of press
censorship and the abolition of flogging as a form of
punishment. He evenlived simply within his means. Governor
De la Torre as a result, inspired the Filipino middle class to
sustain their campaign for reforms in the country.
5. Secularization controver.s y. The mandatory
provision of the Council of Trent (1545-1563) affirmed that
secular priests be appointed to administer the parishes in the
colony. Due to lack of secular priests, Pope Pius V issued in
1567,upon therequest of King Philip II, the Exponi Nobis) which
allowed the regular clergy (those belonging to monastic orders)
to serve as p a h priests without diocesan authorization and
be exempted from bishop's authority. .
•
However, the appointment of regular clergy to Philippine
parishes brought about dissension among members of the
Church. The regular orders at the outset resisted diocesan
visitation on the ground that this would place them under two
superiors, the head of their religious orde•r and the bishop as
well. This caused the expulsion of priests who refused the
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(Prayers and Mockeries), a manual of anti-clerical commentary in
the format of novena . He parodied the Lord's Prayer, Hail Mary,.the
A postles' Creed, the Ten Commandments, the Act of Contrition, and the
catechism. With these anticlerical protests, Del Pilar's stay in the
country became dangerous. His house was burned mysteriously.
He left the Philippines in October 1888 to escape the prosecution of
the friars. ·
Like Del Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena parodied religious
literature in his satires. In Iloilo, he saw the misery of rural
communities and the abuses perpetrated by civil and religious
authorities. He wrote Fray Botod or " Fria r Potbelly" (circa 1874)
where he ridiculed a cleric named Fray Botod, who arrived looking
likea hungry mosquito and soon became stout becauseof the stocks
taken from the people. Because of hisanticlerical literature, he moved
to Madrid wherehe joined other Filipino expatriates into journalism .
Among those who had gone to Spain to study was Jose Rizal,
born to a well-to-do family in Calamba, Laguna. In 1882, he went to
Spain·and studied medicine at the Universidad Central de Madrid.
His prestige was greatly enhanced by Ule publication of his socio
historical novel Noli Me Tangere (Touch Me Not) in.1887.
The Noli reflected the defects of the Spanish rule in the
Philippines, particularly the abuses of the friars. The impact of the
story on the Spaniards in the Philippines was so intense, that later
the reading of it was forbidden in the country.
•
Rizal may have been the first Filipino political cartoonist. In
his sketchbook, he drew lampoons of Chinese merchants and the
cover design for the Noli included the hairy calf and the slippered
foot of a Spanish friar.
Other great Filipino propagandists were Pedro A. Paterno,
lawyer; Antonio ·Lun , pharmacist and essayist; Pedro Serrano
Laktaw, teacher-tutor of Prince Alfonso de Bourbon (later King
Alfonso XIII of Spain); and Isabelo de los Reyes, folklorist and
newspaperman. Juan Luna, known for his monumental painting
Spoliarium and Felix Resurreccion Hidalgo, acclaimed for_his
masterpiece Virgenes Cristianas Expuestas al Populacho (Christian
Virgins Exposed to the Rabble), also joined the movement for
reforms.
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This situation alarmed theSpanish authorities. On July 6,1892,
Rizal was secretly arrested by order of Governor Despujol and
subsequently imprisoned at Fort Santiago. The following day, the
governor general ordered the deportatio_n of Rizal to Dapitan,
Zamboanga del Norte as punishment for his allegedly subversive
materials.
27. The Katipunan

. Someof the members of the Liga Filipina found out that peaceful
agitation for reformswas not enough. This time, they opted for the
country's freedom more than anything else. Andres Bonifacio was
one of them. He did not join the Los Compromisarios or Cuerpo de
Compromisarios led by Domingo Franco. This faction pledged to
continue supporting the Propaganda Movement in Spain.
The radical ones led by Bonifacio believed that the welfare of
the people could not be achieved by requests for reforms but by an
armed revolution. Their goal was transformed from assimilation to
separation and then independence.
On the night of July 7, 1892, Bonifacio and his friends met
secretly at Deodato Arellano's houseat No.72Azcarraga Street (now
Claro M. Recto) near Elcano Street in Tondo, Manila. They decided
•
to form a secret revolutionary society, modeled in part on Masonic
Order called Kataastaasan Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga Anak
ng Bayan (Highest and Respected.Societyof the Sons of the People),
otherwise known as K.K.K. or Katipunan, dedicated to national
independence through armed revolution. ·
The men, gathered around a flickering table lamp,signed their
membership p a p e with their own blood. It was agreed that the
members be recruited by means of the triangle method in which an
original member would recruit two members who did not know
each other but only knew the original member who took them in.
They also decided during the meeting, the payment of an entrance
fee of one real fuerte (twenty-five centavos) and a monthly due of
medio real (about twelve centavos).
The triangle method was abolished in December 1892 after it
was found out to be too cumbersome. New converts were initiated
into thesecret society using rites borrowed from the masonry. The ·
neophyte was made to swear to guard the secrets of the society. ·
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include love of God, loveof country and one's fellow men ; diligence
in work; sharing of one's means with the poor; punishment of
scoundrels and traitors;and the guarding of the man da te.s an d aims
. of the K.K.K.
Another step taken by the Katipunan to propagate its teachings
was "the establishment of a printing press. In 1894, the Katipunan
bought an old handpress with the money donated by two patriotic
Filipinos from Visayas - Francisco del Castillo and Candido Iban.
These two Katipuneros, who came back from Australia in 1895, had
one thousand pesos between them for having won in the lottery.
The types used in printing were purchas_ed from Isabelo de los Reyes,
and many were stole_n from the.press of the Diario de Manila (Manila
Daily) by Filipino employees who were members of the Katipunan.
Under Emilio Jacinto's supervision, two patriotic pr-inters,
Faustino Duque and Ulpiano Fernandez, printed the Kalayaan, the
organ of the Katipunan, to disseminate the ideals of the society.
Kalayaan had its first and only issue in January 1896, which carried a
false masthead stating that it was being printed in Yokohama with
Marcelo H. del Pilar as editor. This was to deceive the Spanish
authorities and evade arrest.
• Published in the Kalayaan was an es s ay titled "Ang Dapat
Mabatid ng mgaTagalog" (What the FilipinosShould Know) attributed
to Bonifacio. This composition dealt with the three questions asked
of Katipunan applicants: "What were the conditions in the
Philippines before Spanish conquest? What is the condition of the -
country today? What will the Philippines be tomorrow?"
Copies of the Kalayaan reached members and possible recruits
through the efforts of MacarioSakay and Piodel Pilar as distributors.
The Katipuneros were tirelessly recruiting members in Nueva Ecija,
Bulacan, and Cavite. The society grew and began to spread into the
non-Tagalog provinces. By August 1896, there were thousands of
Katipunan members in the arrabales of Manila and some 18,000 in
other towns.
•
During the Holy Week of 1895, Bonifacio and some Katipuneros
went to the mountains of Montalban in search of a good hideout
where they could hold their secret meetings. On April 10, 1895,
Bonifacio and his companions includmg Emilio Jacinto, Restituto
Javier and Guillermo Masangkay entered the Pamitinan Cave (Cave
of Bernardo Carpio) on Mount Tapusi in the mountain ranges of
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was sworn into office inside the Catholic Church of Santa Cruz
Malabon {Tanza) together with other newly elected officials.
Aday after the TejerosAssembly, March 23,Bonifacio gathered
his followers and drafted a document called Acta de Tejeros, signed
by Bonifacio and 44 other plotters.
This document rejected the revolutionary government of
Aguinaldo on the following grounds:first, the Tejeros Assembly lacks
legality; second, there was a Magdalo conspiracy to oust Bonifacio
from leadership; third, the election of officials was fraudulent; and
fourth, that actual pressure has been brought upon the presidency.
Another secret meeting was held on April 19, 1897 at the friar
estate house in Naic. Bonifacio and his coconspirators drew up
another document called the Naic Military Pact, signed by 41 men,
including Bonifacio, Ricarte, Pio del Pilar, and Severino de las Alas.
An army corps under the command of General Pio del Pilar was
created.
While Bonifacio and his companions were busy conferring,
Major Lazaro Makapagal who was held prisoner downstairs
managed to escape and informed Preside t Aguinaldo, who was in
bed suffering malaria, about the recent developm nts. Aguinaldo
rose from his sickbed and went to the friar-estate house to confront
his conspirators.
Seeing that Aguinaldo's soldiers had already surrounded the
estate house, Bonifacio and his Magdiwang followers left hurriedly
except General Pio del Pilar and General Mariano Noriel who
subsequently joined Aguinaldo's troops.
President Aguinaldo convoked a revolutionary assembly in
Naic. The following matters were taken up: adoption of a new red
flag with a white sun of eight rays at the center, a standard uniform
for the soldiers - the rayadill<1 and a set of new rules fixing military
ranks and their insignias; and,thereorganizationof the revolutionary
army. .
Bonifacio, with his wife Gregoria, his two brothers (Ciriaco and
Procopio) and loyal followers fled to Limbon (barrio of lndang).
Upon learning of Bonifacio's p c e atLimbon and the alleged
crimes committed by his soldiers in Indang, Aguinaldo summoned
Colonels Agapito Bonzon, Felipe Topacio, and Jose Ignacio Paua to
go to Limbon with some troops and arrest Bonifacio and his men.
Bonifacio furiously resisted.
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part of the promised money to the rebels in Hong Kong. However,
after the peace pact, neither side fully complied with the terms of
the agreement. The government never' ins ti tu te d the expected
reforms. Likewise, the Filipinos continued their plan to overthrow
the·government.
There weresporadic uprisings in different partsof the country.
On March· 7, 1898, the revolutionaries in Zambales besieged the
cablestation at Bolinao and seized the telegraph line connected to
Manila. On March 25, Federico Isabelo Abaya and his men were
able to get Candon, Ilocos Sur, from the Spaniards.
Pantaleon Villegas, popularly known as Leon Kilat incited a
revolt in Cebu known as Tres de Abril in retaliation of the March 25
incid.ent when the Spaniards massacred many Visayan sailors. at
Camba Street, Manila.
Central Luzon, General Francisco Makabulos of Tarlac
established a provincial revolutionary g o v e r n me n t w i t h a
constitution written by him. The Makabulos Constitution adopted
on April 17, 1898, set up this provisional gov:emment in Central
Luzon to continue in force until a general government for the
Republic was established.
In Malol?s, General Isidoro Torres established his ca mp to
continue the revolutionary spirit. Revolts were also experienced in
Bohol, Cebu, Panay, and other islands in the country. Feliciano
Jocson, a pharmacist, incited the patriots in Manila to continue the
fight against the Spaniards. ·
Aguinaldo and his officers went into exile but did not end the
fight to win independence from Spain. On a letter written in Hong
Kong dated February 19, 1898, Maricµ10 Ponce stated that General
Aguinaldo had signed the Pact of Biak-na-Bato because under its
terms, the Filipino revolutionists could rest and regain their lost
strength and then return to combat with renewed vigor.
31. The S p i s h -Amer i can War (1898)

TheSpanish-American war which brokeout on April 25, 1898,
ended on August 12 of the same year. There were factors that
contribt1ted to the United States' decision to open hostilities against
Spain. These included the Cuban struggle for independence, efforts
of the Americans to extend influence overseas, and the sinking of
the U.S. warship Maine.
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not like to settle for the projected reforms. They clamored for total
independence. On the same day, Aguinaldo's new army repulsed
the Spanish marines at Alapan, a barrio in Imus, Cavite. The
Philippine Flag (The Sun and Stars Flag) was first unfti.rled in the
Battle ofAlapan.
This initial success inspired other people to relive the
revolutionary spirit. During thesubsequent days, theSpanish forces
were routed in Bataan, Cavite, Bulacan, Pampanga, Laguna,
Batangas, Tayabas (now Quezon), and other provinces.
The capture of Manila was the principal objective of General
Aguinaldo. He and his troops commanded by General Gregorio
del Pilar, Pio del Pilar, Artemio Ricarte, and Mariano Noriel, among
others, surrounded the city.
Dewey's squadron dominated the bay and thus the Spaniards
were trapped within the city walls. Aguinaldo's men had cut off the
supply of foodstuffs and potable water in the city. The populace
suffered terribly during the siege. Aguinaldo offered Governor
General Augustin terms for an honorable surrender but the latter
rejected him. Dewey demanded the surrender of Manila on August
7. Consequently, theSpanish governor generalhonorably conceded.
.
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c. Batangas and Nueva Ecija
d. Bataan and Nueva Ecija
•
22. He tried to reconcile the two factions of the Katipunan in
the I m u s Convention b y drafting a constitution
establishing the Philippine Republic.
a. M. Trias c. B.Aguinaldo
b. E. Evangelista d. A. Ricarte
23. This marked the establishment of the Kakarong Republic.
a. Dec. 2, 1896 c. Dec. 18, 1896
b. Dec. 4, 1896 d. Jan. 1,1897
24. He told the Coundl of War that Bonifacio gave him an
initial payment of ten pesos to assassinate General
Aguinaldo but he refused to follow the order.
a. Lazaro Makapagal c. P-edro Giron
b. Severino de las Alas d. Pio del Pilar
25. General Francisco Makabulos established his provincial
revolutionary government in this province even after the
signing of the Pactof Biak-na-Bato.
a. Pampanga c. Batangas
b. Nueva Ecija d. Tarlac
II. Essay: Answer the following: (10 pts. each)

1. Why did the early Filipino revolts fail? Cite examples.
2. What were the efforts of the Filipino propagandists to
achieve peaceful reforms?
3. When is a revolution justifiable?
4. What prompted the United States of America to declare
the Spanish-American War?
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Gregorio Araneta - Secretary
. Pablo Tecson ' - Secretary (who replaced Araneta)
Pablo Ocampo - Secretary
A total of 93 representatives took part in the Congress, 35 of
them weredirectly elected. a n y of them were holdersof academic
degrees from universities in Ew-ope. The president of the Congress
himself, Dr. Pedro A. Paterno, wasa holder of a bachelor's degree.in
law from the University of Salamanca and a doctorate degree from
the Universidad Central de Madrid.
As the delegates converged at Malolos, they made it evident
that they wished to enact a constitution and establish a permanent
government for the country. The seat of the Revolutionary Congress
was fixed at the Barasoain Church.
Mabini argued that under the decreeof its creation, the Congress
was a mere consultative body. It possessed no legislative powers. It
was essential for all powers to be veste4 in one person or entity to
ensure swift action. Felipe C. Calderon contended that it w a s
necessary to show that the Philippines was duly constituted as a
State in order to strengthen its claim to recognition of its sovereign
status.
President Aguinaldo upheld Calderon's views, evidently
considering Congress to be the authoritative spokesman for the
Filipino people and the true reflection of their d r e a s a n d
aspirations.
Thecommittee to draft the constitution was composed of 19
members with Felipe Calderon as the chairman. It studied the three
constitutionaldraftssubmitted - the Mabini Plan, Paterno Plan,and
the Calderon Plan.
The Mabini Plan was the Constitutional Programme of the
Philippine Republic. The Paterno Plan was based on the Spanish
Constitution of 1868. The Calderon Plan was a constitution based
on the constitutions of .France, Belgium, Mexico, Costa Rica,
Guatemala, Nicaragua and Brazil. After a thorough examination and
deliberation, the Committee chose the Calderon Plan and submitted
it to the Malolos Congress for approval.
According to Felipe Calderon, the Committee rejected the
Mabini draft because it was based on the Statutes of Universal
Masonry, abhorred by the majority of the delegates who were
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ChapterTestNo. -
Name: Date: _ _ _ _ _
Course, Year,and Section: _
I. Multiple Choice. @hoose the letter with the correct answer.

Write your answers on the blanks provided: (20 p ts.)
1. This person made the designof The Sun and Stars
Flag.
a. Emilio Aguinaldo
b. Marcela Marino Agoncillo
c. Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista
d. Mariano 'Irias
2. This was the title of the anthem at the time it was
played on June 12,1898.
a. Marcha Nacional Filipina
b. Marcha Filipina Nacional
c. Marcha Filipina Magdalo
d. Himno Nacional
3; He c o mp o s e d the " M a r a n g a l n a D alit n g
Katagalugan".
a. Andres Bonifacio c. Julio Nakpil
b. Julian Felipe d. Rafael Palma
3. This document included the explanation for the
design and the.color of the Philippine flag.
a. Treaty of Paris
b. Act of the Declaration of P h i l i p p i n e
Independence
.
c. Act of the Proclamation of P h i l i p p i n e
Independence
d. Act of the Proclamation of the Philippine
Republic
170
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Index
1935 Constitution, 188,211 AFFB (Agrava Fact Finding
1935 National elections, 200 Board), 275
1935 PhilippineConstitution, AFP (Armed Forces of the Phil-
251,268 ippines), 286, 289
1953 Presidential elections, 258 African continent, 20
1973 Constitution, 270, 280 Age of contact, 45
1987 Philippine Constitution, 279 ACCFA (Agricultural Credit Co
1996 Peace Agreement, 302 operative Financing Administra
4th World Meeting ofFamilies, tion), 255, 259 .
304 Aglipay, Bishop Gregorio, 188,
192, 193
A Aglipayan Church, 193
A'lam, Sultan Jamalul, 126 Agno River, 99 ·
Abad Santos, Jose, 214· Agoncillo; Doila Marcela 1 fari
Abad Santos, Pedro, 212 ilo, 162
Abad, Juan, 181 Agrava, Corazon J·..Jane,, 275
Abarillo, Lt Macario A., 243 Agricultural Credit Cooperative
Abaya, Federico lsabelo, 153 Financing Administration
Abba, 58 (ACCFA), 255,259
Abbas, Macapanton, Jr., 293 Agricultural Land Reform Code,
Abelardo, Nicanor, 190•
264
Ablan, Gov. Roque, 236 Agricultural modernization in
Aborigines of the Philippines, 40. Mindanao, 301
Abra, 21_ Agricultural people, 41
Absolute Spirit, 2 Agricultural practice,
Abu Bakr, 52 Agricultural tevolution, 42
Abu Sabaya, 292 Agricultural Tenancy Act of
AbuSayyaf, 292 1954,258
Acab, Vidal, 142 Aguinaldo, Baldomero, 147,162,
Academic reforms, 88 178
Academy of Drawing and Paint Aguinaldo, Emilio, 145, 147, 148,
ing, 89 149, 151, 155, 156, 157, 162,
Aa of Agreement, 152 163, 165, 167, 169, 178, 188, ·
Act of the Declaration of Philip- 192
pine Independence,162 exileof, 152
Acta deTejeros, 1.42 government, 176
Adam and Eve, 16 General, 183
Admiral Zheng He, 5Jl movement, 192
Adriano, Numeriano, 136 Agusan, 21_
Adriatico, Macario, 180 Agustin, Marcos V., 236
Aetas, .U Ailing economy, 283
321
Mataryalas n;, n;,k<icopyriqht

Albay, Z Anito,68
Alcalde-Mayor, 83, 23 Anniversaries of the Filipino na
Alcarazo, Don Juan de, 113, 114 . tionalheroes, 190 .
Alejandrino, Castro, 239 Anti-clerical commentary, 1ll
Alexandrian scholar, 11 Anti-Dummy Law, 209
Alim and Hudhud, 46 Anti-Marcos sentiment in the
Alipin, 56, 51 country, 277
Aliping namamahay,51 Anti-nationalist law,181
Aliping sagiiglid, 51 Apa, 227
Alitao, 123 Apacible, Galicano, 135
Allah,5..3 Aparri, 2A
Almazan,Pedro, ll1 APEC (Asia Pacific Economic •
Al-Qaeda oiganization, 303 Cooperation), 288

Alvarez, Heherson, 281 Apo Ipe, 194
Alvarez, Mariano,147 Apostol, Cecilio, 168
Amadeo, 131 Aquino de Belen, Gaspar, 90
America, 223 Aquino, Agapito, 282
American cavalry, 242. Aquino, Benigno, 230, 259,270,
American colonial era, 22 274,275
American colonial government, death,275
189 investigation of, 275
American era, 191 murder, 275
American jazz, 189 trial. 275
American liberalism, 128 Aquino, Pres. Corazon C., 276,
American military rule, 175 277,281,283,297
American mine operator, 236 administration (1986-1992),
in thePhilippines, 236 279
American mode of dressing, 190 foreign trips, 281
American newspaper, 189 Aquino, Eusebio, 239
American occupation, 190, 194 Aquino-Galman double murder,
American period, 180 275
American prisoners, 178 trial, 275
American public schools, 188 Arandia, Gov. Gen. Manuel de,
American revolution, 190 125
American rule, 181 Araneta, Gemma Cruz, 292
American Soldier, 189 Araneta, Gregorio, 166
American, victory of, 155 Araneta, Vicente,260
Americunistas or pro-Americans, 179 Archaeologicalrelics, 48
Anda, Gov. Simon de, Jl9 copper image of Ganesha, 48
Andang, Ghalib, 292 Garuda, 48
Anderson, Capt. Bernard L., 237 god Garuda pendant of Pala
Andres Malong's Revolt, ill wan, 48
Pangasinan (1660-61), 116 gold imag,. of Agusan, 48
Angara, Edgardo, 281 Archae lQgy, i L 40
Animal life, 28 Archipelago of St. Lazarus, 22
322

Architectural plan, 191 156, 157, 192
AreUano, Cayetano, 192 Augustinian missionaries, 94
Arellano,Deodato, 136,139 Aurora, 2A
Arellano,Gen.Alfonso,262 Australo-Melanesian, 40
Arevalo, Bonifacio, 136 Austrian government, 290
Aristocracy, 51 assistance of the, 290
Armed Forces of the Philippines, Autonomous Region in Muslim
257,277 . Mindanao (ARMM), 23
ARMM (Autonomous Region in Avancena, Chief JusticeRamon,
M l i m Mindanao), 291 208
Army of National Liberation, 255 Aventajado, Robert, 292
Army of the Republic, 169 Aves de Rapina, 189
Amis, fil Aviation Security Cornman
Arrechedera, Bishop Juan de, US (AVSECOM)2, 74, 275 .
Arroyo Administration (2001- AVSECOM (Aviation Security
2004), 298,299 Command), 274, 275
direction for economic recov Awit (songs), 48
ery, 299 "Awit sa Pagl.ikha ng Bagong
pro-poor programs, 301 Pilipinas", 233
thrust ofgovernment, 299 Aytona, Dominador, 262
Art of metallurgy,
Artacho, Isabelo,151 B
Artifact; 41 Babaylan, ll.3
Artworks, 55 Babuyan Channel, 21.
Arza, Don Manuel de, 120 Bacalzo, Raul, 294
Asbestos, 29 Badjao(s), g, 64
Ashfalls, 282 Bagbag Rivers, 176
Asia Pacific Economic Coopera Bagobos, 64
tion (APEC),288 and B'laans of Davao del Sur,
member states, 288 32
Asian colonizers, 233 Bagong Lipunan Improvement of
Asian history and culture, 232 Sites and Services (BLISS), 273
Asian Millennium, 304 &gong Sibol, 182
As«iacion de Damas de Filipnias, Baguio City, 24
291 Bagumbayan 131
Asociacion de Paz, 179 &hag, 62
·organizers, 179 Bahay kubo, 6J
Asthenosphere, 1.8 · Balabac, 20
Atayde, Juan, 134 Balangay, 45
Ateneo de Manila, 8 discovery of, 45
Atlas, 11 Balangay Dimasalang, JA5
ATOM (AugustTwenty-One Balanghai, 13
Movement), 274 Balatukan Mountain, 2.5
Audienda Real, 83,102 J1alileatan, 303
Augustin, Gov. Gen. Basilio, Balin.git, Pedro , 111
323

Ballotboxsnatching,276 largest, 28
Balmori, Joaquin, 197 Battle in La Loma, 175
Bambalito, 80 Battle ofBagbag River, 176
Bamboo jaw harps, 60 Battle of Cape Engaiio, 242
Banal, Juan, 111 Battle of Imus, 147
Banda Pasig, 165 Battle of·Mactan,14
Banda/a, 116 Battle of Manila, 163, 188
Bandholtz, Col. Harry !:L 184 Battle of Manila Bay, 155
Bangsa Moro, 271 Battle of Marawi, 127
Bangsa Moro Army (BMA),270 Battle of Mendiola, 268
Bankaw, 113, 114 Battle of Mount Puray, 151
Bankaw's revolt, Leyte, (1622), Battle of Pinaglabanan,143
ill Battle ofSamar, 242
Banks, 227 Battle of Surigao Strait, 242
Bantilan, 125 Battle of Tirad Pass, 178
Barangay,40, 41, 56, 51 Battle ofZapote, 146
elections, 280 Bautista, Ambrosio Riaoures,
Barasoain Church, 165, 166, 168 156,162
Barbosa, Duarte, Zl BAYAN (Bagoog AlyaosaogMa
Barcelona, 135 kabayan), 274
Baretto, Alberto, 180 Bayanihan,.Y
Barnett, Captain George, 236 spirit of,_34
Baro, 63 Bayanihan Spirit, 305
Barong Tagalog, 258 Baybayin, Al
Basa, Jose Maria, 131 Bayong, 227
Basa, Pio Maria, 131 Bayot, Col. Francisco, 122
Basa, Roman, 138, 139 Beaterio de la Compania de Je-
Basco, Jose, 92 sus, 88
Basi, 60 BEC (Basic EducationCurricu-
Basi, Ge!"onimo, 111 lum), 301
Basi revolt (1807), W Beebee, Pedro, 120
cause, Ul Beil, Major, 176
Bataan Defense Force, 215,217 Belarmino, Vito, 146
Bataan Peninsula, 216, 217 Beliefs and rituals, 35
Bataan, 217 Mission, 256
fall of,224 Bell Report, 256
historic defense,217 Bell Trade Act, 255
. surrender of.,219
Bell, Gen.Franklin, 180
Batak, 32 Bello, Silvestrem,303
Batasang Pambansa, 276, 279 Benevolent Assimilation Procla-
Bates, John, 175 mation, 174 •
Bathala, 46, 58 Beyer, Henry Otley, ?..,34
Bato, Sorsogon, 7 Beyer's migration theory, 35
Bats, 28 . Biak-na-Bato Republic, 151, 152
smallest, 28 authority of, 156
324

officials, 152 Burial coffins,43
Bicol, 2.& .
Bicol Region, 23 C
Bicolanos, 11 Cabana/an, 58
Bin Laden, Osama,303 Cabanatuan, 223
Binatog, 226 Cabangbang, Capt. Bartolome,
Binwangan (Obando), 41. 238,261,262,273
Birthcontrol, 284 Cabeza de Barangay, 82
methods of,284 Cabili, Tomas, 187
Bisruta, 41 Cabinet Crisis of 1923, 185
Blanco, Father Manuel, 91 Cabot, Sebastian, 76
BLISS, 273 Cagayan,·6, ill
Blumentritt, Ferdinand, 134 Cagayan region, 23
Board of Infomiation, 233 Cagayan River, 26
Boat building, 48 Cagayan Valley, 8
Body ornaments,.44 Cagayancillo in Palawan, 21.
Bognot, Cirilo, 197, 198 Ca graray, 1
Bonifacio, Andres, 136,138, Cagsawa,26
140, 141, 142, 143,149, 162 CAL (China Airlines), 274
day, 190 C'.alamianes, 21
monument, 191 Calao, 111
Bonifacio, Ciriaco, 150 Calatagan, Z
Bontoks, 32 Calderon, Felipe C., 166, 167
Bothoan, 60 Calendar, 62
Bounding Billow, 189 religious, 95
Bourbon, Prince Alfonso de, ill Calicut, India, 62
Boxer Codex, 56 Camp Aguinaldo, 277
Braeanz.a, Hemani, 303 Camp Bushra in Lanao del Sur,
Braudel, Femand, l 294
BrigandageAa, 181, 182, 184 Camp Jerusalem, 239
passageof, 182 Camp John Hay, 243
Briones, Samuel, 8 Camp Murphy, 256
Brocka, Lino, 280 Camp O'Donnel, 218
Brooks, Robert P., 263 Capas, 219
Budiman, Sultan Pangiran, 123 Cape of Good Hope, 75
Buenavista Regiment, 238 Cape Verde Islands, 70
Buencamino,Felipe, 179 Capital offenses,·231
Bugtong (riddles), 48 CAPM (Cory Aquino for Presi-
Building structure,94 dent Movement), 276
Bukaneg,Pedro,90 Capture of Manila, rn ·
Bulacan, 2A Caraballo Mountain, 26
guerillas, 238 Caraballo Range, 24
Bulwagan, 63 Carabao Festival, 91.
Buranur:is, 46 Caraga Administrative Region,
Bureau of Religious Affairs,233 23
325

Cardenas,Ramon,291 Cheng Cheng-lrung,100
Carigara, 113, Cheng Ho, 50
people of, lli Chico, 21
Carii'io, Nicolas, 120 Chief of Medang, 41
CARL (Comprehensive Agrarian Cbina, 1
Reform Law), 280 China Airlines (CAL), 274
Cabarruyan Island, 1 China Sea, 21
Carreon, Francisco, 183 Chinese,30
Carti/Ja, 139 immigration, 2.l
Casa>(s), 224; 228 ' in the Philippines, 97
Castillo, Andres, 262 merchants, 99
Castillo, Mateo, 252 mestizos, 98
Catastrophism, 11 revolt, 99, 100
Catechism, ill traders, .?_1 101
Catholic Church, 284 Chocolate Hills, 26
Catholic devotion, 194 Christian, ll
Catholic religion, 82 history, 97
Catholicism, 94, 102, 193 Filipinos, 175
Catholics beliefs, 24 marriage, 78
Cave of Bernardo Carpio, 141 religion, ll
Caveman, Y way of life, 95
Cavite Mutiny of 1872, 130, 132 Christianity, influence of, 95
CBCP (C.atbolic Bishops' Confer- Christiaoization of the Filipinos,
ence of the Philippines), 284 94
Cebu, !i TI Christianized Malays, 30
Cebuanos, l1 Chu-fan-chi, 42
CEDP (Community Employment Church, 224
and Development Program), Church and state, 167 ·
280 separation of, 167
Celebes Sea, 22 CIA (Central Intelligence
Cenozoic era, 12 Agency), 292
tertiary period of the, 12 Cid, O priano, 253
Census Commission, 211 Cirado HispatUrFilipino, 134
Census day, 180 City of the Most Holy Name of
Centennial programs, 287 Jesus, Tl
slogan, 287 Ciudad de/ Santissimo Nomlm de
Central Luzon,23 Jesus, TI
Central Mindanao, 23 Civilian emergency Administra-
Central Plain in Luzon, 24, 21 tion, 212
Central Visaya,s23 Civilization, 41
Ceron, Alvaro Saavedra, 76 O a r Air Base in Pampanga, 282
Cha-Cha (Charter Change), 286 Clark Field Air Base in Pampa-
Champa,46 _nga,251
Charts, 11 Claveria, Gov.Gen. Narciso, W
Chau-Ju-kua, 21,49 Clemente,Juan,95
326

Climates, 30 Congress of the Philippines, 21l
warin and cold, 20 Corney, prosecutionof, I86
Cloth weaving, 45 Conquistadores, 75
Coalition party, 188 onstabulary, 225
· Coastal shelf,LO Constantino, Renato, t 4
•• of Australia, 21 Constantinople, 62
of Southeast Asia, 20 Constitution, drafting of, 187
Cobble tools, 42 Constitutional Commission, 279,
CodeofKaJantiaw, 9, !Q. 11 280
Cofradia de San Jose, 193 Constitutional Convention,199
Cohen, William,289 Consultative Assembly, 156
Cojuangco, Corazoo,274 Consumer Cooperative Leagueof
Cojuangco, Eduardo, 277 the Philippines; 210
Colegio de Sanjuan de Letran, Continental shelf, 20, 21
88 ' Cooper Act, 179, 183
Colegio de Santo Tomas, 88 Copper, 29, 30
College of Manila, 87 Copper mines, 24
College of San lgnacio, 87 Corcuera, Gov.,124
College of Santa Potenciana, 88 Cordillera, 62
Colorum organization, 194 Cordillera Administrative Region
CoJorum rebellion, 195 (CAR), 23
Colorums, 193, 194,195 Cordillera Range, 24
Columbus, Christopher, 62 Core population theory, l5
Ccmredia, 90 Core tools, 41
COMELEC (Commissjon on Cornish, Rear AdmiralSamuel,
Elections), 276, 277 101, 102
Commander Robot, 292 Corregidor, 217, 218, 224
Commission on Election, 211 Malinta tunnel, 219
Committee on Labor{)rganiza- Ccrregidores, 83
tion, 253 Corregimienros,83
Commonweahh Constitution, Cory Aquino for PresidentMove-
200 ment (CAPM),276
Commonwealth of thePhilip Cotabato, 32
pines, 187, 208 Cotton industry, 227
the transition, 208 Council ofTrent, 1.22
Commonwealth period, 208 Council of War, 150
Communication, 128 Court of Agrarian Relations, 258
improvement in, 128 Court of Industrial Relations, 208
Communism, 198 establishment, 208
Communist Manifesto, 3 CPP (Communist Party of the
Communist Party of the Philip- Philippines), 285
pines, 198· Craftsmen, native, 98
Community, Creation, story of, 16
Conapcion, 11 "Crossroa4s of the Pacific", 22
Confesor., Gov.Tomas, 239 Cruz, Juan Matapang, 181
•
327
' Materyales na nakd copyright

book.
book.
•
Diariong Tagalog, 132 Dumaguete City, 8

Diaz, Bartolome, 62 Dupuy de Lome, 154
Diaz, Candido Lopez, 92 Duque, Faustino, lA1
Din, Alimud, 102 Duran, Pio, 241
Diokno, JoseW., 263, 270, 279 Dutch assauh:s, 101
Diokno; Narciso, 187 Duties to be observed by the Sons
Dionisio, Patricio, 198 of the Country, 140
Disierto, Ombudsman Aniano,
298 E
Diwata Range, 25 Eagle, 2a
Diwatas, 55 Early Metal Age, 43.
Dizon,Amado,275 Eastern Visayas, 23
Dizon, Marina, 135 Ecological zones, ll
DND (Department of National Economic development, 260, 286
Defense), 303 . Economic mobilization, 254
Doarina Christiana en lenguaespa- Econornictheory,2
iiola y taga/a, 90 Edevoso, Eleuterio, 237
DOJ (Department of Justice), 294 EDSA,278
Dokats, 224 EDSA Shrine, 297
DOLE (Department of Labor and Education, basic, 87
Employment), 289 Educational decree, 88
Domingo, Damian, 82 . Educational system, 88, 232,301
DOT (Department of Tourism), Egbert, Col. Harry 0., 176
280 Eight-Hour Labor Act and the
DOTC (Department ofTranspor Minimum Wage Law, 208
tation and Communication), ElHera/do dela Revolucion, 168
299 El Nido Cave,
DPWH (Department of Public El Nino phenomenon in 1990,
Works and Highways), 295 282
Dr. Jose Rizal Centennial Com- El Nuevo Dia, 168
mission, 262 El Renacimiento, 189
Drake, Dawsonne, l 02 Election Code of 1978, 272
Drake, Sir Francis, 101 Election, first, under American
Dramatic Philippines, 234 flag, 192
sister organization of, 234 E lephas, 6
Draper, Brig. Gen. William, 101, Elephas Beyeri, 1
102 Embroidery, works of, 94
Dressing,.48 Emergency power, 270
manner of, 51 Encomenderos, 110
mode of, .48 abuses of,11O
Drilon, Franklin M., 293 Encomienda, fil., 82
DTI (Department of Trade and English language, 188
Industry), 295 Enrile, Juan Ponce, 277; 278, 282
Dujiols, Col., 151 Enriquez, Capt. Manuel P., 236
Dumagats, 238 Environmental problems, 283
330
Equality, ill Felipina,22, 16
ERAP (Enhanced RetailAccess Felipinas, 76
for the Poor), 288 Feliu, Gen. Olaguer, 1A5
Espeleta, Bishop Miguel Lino de, Felizardo, Cornelio, 183
118 Fernandez, Dionisio, 111
Esteban, Don Francisco, U1 F d e z , Father Agustin, 142
Estrada, Joseph, 282, 287, 290, Fernandez, Ramon, 186
293,295,297,298 Fernandez, Ulpiano, JA1
administration (1998-2000), Ferrer, Jaime, 258
287 Festival La Naval de Manila, lill
cases of, 298 Figueroa, Capt. EstebanRodri-
impeachmenttrial,295,299 guez de, 123
opening of the enve ope,296, Filipinas, 22, 168
297 Filipinization in 1916, 181
slogan, 287 Filipinization of the judiciary,
vision ofgovernment, 287 211
Ethnic dances, 61 Filipino, 223
Ethnic tribes, 33 Filipino, christianization of, 94
Europeans in the Philippines, 100 Filipino-American troops, 218
Evangelista, Alfredo, Z Filipino-American collaboration,
Evangelista, Crisanto, 197 155 .
Evangelista, General, 146 Filipino-American relations,174,
Executive Order No. 163, 279 209
Expeditions by theSpaniards, 126 Filipino-American war, 179
Filipino church, 193 ·
F establishment of, 193
Fabrics, 94 Filipino composers,190
Fajardo, Gov. Diego, 114 Filipino history, 46
Fajardo, Sixta, 135 Filipino landowners, 212
Fall of Manila, 102 Filipino language, 263
Farmers Cooperative and Mar Filipino loyalty, 254
keting Associations (FACO reaffirmation of, 254
MA), 259 Filipino Masonic L()dge, 135
Fascism, 235 Filipino nationalism, 127, 131
Fasting (sawm), S3 . the rise of, 127·
Father of Filipino painting, 89 Filipino people,30
Father of llocos Literature, 90 Filipino prehistory,44
Fauna, 20 the phase of, 44
Feast of the I m m a c u l a t e - C o Filipino propagandists, 134, 135
tion,95 Filipino•$CU.lptors,191
Federal Party, 273 Filipino settlement, 55
Federalistas, 179 Filipino society,
Federation ofMalaya, 264 Filipino soldiers, l 75, 303
Feleo, Juan, 252 Filipino writing, 42 •
Felipe,Julian, 162 Filipinos, equality of, 132
331
First Congress of the Philippines, Franco,Mariano, 240
244
First Philippine Commission,
.
Fra ternity, ill
Fraud,276
'
174, 176 Fray Botod, 1ll

Fishes, 29 French Revolution, W
species of, 29 "Friar Potbelly", 1ll
Fishing people, 41 Fruits,'!;L 42
First congressional law, 179 Funston, Gen. Frederick, 178
F1agLaw(l907), 181
Flake tools, 42 G
Flora, 20 Gabaldon Law, 185
Flora de Filipinos, 91 Gaceta de Filipinas, 168
Floresde Maria, 131 Gaddangs of lsabela, 32
Flores deMayo, 91 Galleon trade, 94
Florida, 76 Galrnan, Rolando, 274
Flowering plants, 21 Galut, Januario, 178
species of, 21 Gamboa, Joaquin, 120
Flowers, species of, 48 Ganaps, 235, 240
Flowers of May, 97 Ganasakti., fl
Fluvial condition, 20 Garces, Isabel, 78
Folgueras, Gov. Mariano de, 122 Garcia Olive, Col.Francisco, 144
Folk epics, 48 Garcia, Jose Antonio, 290
theBicol Handiong, 48 Garcia, Pres. Carlos P., 258, 260,
the Ifugao Alim and Hudhud, 261
48 ' administration, 261
the Ilocano Lam-ang, 48 Gascon, Atty. Chito, 303
the Kalinga Ulalim, 48 Geisteswissenchaften, 2
the Maguindanao Indarapatra, General Banking Law of 2000,
48 290 .
the Maranao Bantugan,48 Generic Act, 281
Folk healers, 62 Genesis 1.: L 16
Folk superstition, 194 Geographers, 21
Foradada, Fr. Francisco, 193 Geography and Resources, 22
Foreign Investment Bill,260 Geological formation, 12
· Forests, 23, 21 Geological Foundation, 12
Fort Bonifacio,274 Geological monuments, 2.6
Fort of San Felipe in <.=:avite,144 Geology, 11
Fort Pilar,124 analytical study of, l1
Fort Santiago, 102, 137, 142, 223, German fleet, 156
256 · Gil, Mariano,142
Fqssils, 18 Giron, Lt. Col. Pedro, 150
World Meeting of Families, Glacial period, 20
304 Glaciation, 20
Fox, Robert B., L.8 Glaciers, 20
• Franco,Domingo,136, ll1 Glorious Fourth, 190
332
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Philippine Copyright, 2004

by Rex BookStore, Inc.

Published, copyrighted 2004, an distributed by• Book

RBSI's Local Book Association Memberships: Association of

1. Understand.in. Histor ...................................................1..

1. How the Earth Was in the Be· .............................. 16

4. h and Resources ................................................22

5. Coun 's Climate........................3.0....

1. Cultural Evolution of the Earl

1. In Search of New I.ands ,.........................................,,....69

-?-"-- -, , _..... :..•,: '·:

1. RevoJt of L a k a n d u l ang Sµlaygum ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••110

4. Ma alat's Revolt......................................................... ..... 112

11. Sumoro 's Revolt ........................ ..................................... 115

16. Ta ar 's Revolt .............·.....................................................1. 18

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7 The American Rule

1. War of Philippine Independence from the U.S. ........... 174

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1. The T. ransition .............. ..................................................... 208

1. Roxas Administration (1946-48) .....................................250

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9. Estrada Administration (1998-2001)............................... 287

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motives. The struggle to maintain life is the most enduring

increasing d o m and·fornewer and higher realization of the

I. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter with the cc;>rrect answer.

7. Asidefrom thosein Madrid,mostof the collections

3. The Archipelago's Name

7. Theories on the Origin of Filipinos

Materyales na nak a-copyright

II. Matching 'fype. Match Columns A and B. Write the letters

1. Cultural Evolution of the Early Filipinos

By striking the stones, sparks have been produced which

Antoon Postma, a Dutch national who has lived with the

During the reign of Zhu Di (Chu Ti), the Yung-lo Emperor in

Materyales na naka-co yright

I. Multiple Choice: Choose the letter with the correct answer. ,

2. This theory maintains that the early inhabitants

c. Island Origin Hypothesis

1. Kinnoton a. Muslim wedding

1. In Search of New Lands

Santiago, San Antonio,and Victoria together with about 250men. The

On March 10, 1785, King Charles Ill of Spain issued a royal

· 6. The first i s d Magellan

7. The Revolt ofTamblot, Bohol (1621-22)

8. Bankaw's Revolt, Leyte ( 1 6 2 2)

Pedro G umapos and his army of Zambals killed ma ny

20. Basi Revolt (1807)

21. Revolt in f e n s e o ft h eSp,a.nish Constitution (1815)

In 1751, Governor General Jose Francisco de Obandp·wanted '·

According toSpanish records, an average of 500Christians were

129 Materyales na naka-copyright

27. The Katipunan

31. The S p i s h -Amer i can War (1898)

II. Essay: Answer the following: (10 pts. each)

I. Multiple Choice. @hoose the letter with the correct answer.

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Al-Qaeda oiganization, 303 Cooperation), 288

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