Transformer Design

1
Layout of a Typical Transmission system
showing the importance of
TRANSFORMERS at various stages.
 Introduction

Constituents of transformer:
i. Magnetic Circuit
ii. Electric Circuit
iii. Dielectric Circuit
iv. Other accessories

3
 Classification or Types

Transformers

Based on
Based on
Based on Core transformer
Service
Ratio

Core Shell Distribution Power

Step up Step Down
Type Type Transformer Transformer

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Constructional Details

5
Constructional Details

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Constructional Details

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Basic parts of transformer
 Core Type

One Magnetic Circuit

 Shell Type
Two Magnetic Circuits
•The cut-core or C-core type is made by winding a
steel strip around a rectangular form and then
bonding the layers together.
• It is then cut in two, forming two C shapes, and
the core assembled by binding the two C halves
together with a steel strap.
• They have the advantage that the flux is always
oriented parallel to the metal grains, reducing
reluctance.
 Core and Shell Type Transformer
• In core type transformer, each and every limb is
occupied with both primary and secondary winding.
Half part of the primary winding and half part of the
secondary winding are placed successively around
each limb.
• On the other hand in shell type transformer, the
main frame is constructed with three limbs. Both the
primary and secondary winding are wound around
the central limb.
• In core type transformer no additional limb is used
as flux flow path but in shell type transformer two
limbs are used as low-reluctance flux path.
• The core type transformer is generally more suitable
for high voltage whereas the shell-type is generally
more suitable for low voltage.
 1. Core- Type Transformer
 In core-type transformer, the windings are given
to a considerable part of the core.

The coils used for this transformer are form-

wound and are of cylindrical type.

The general arrangement of the core-type

transformer with respect to the core is shown
below.
 Classification Of Transformer

• Shell type
• Core type
 Transformer Core

Core type Construction Shell Type Construction

16
 The low voltage windings are placed
nearer to the core as it is the easiest to
insulate.

The effective core area of the

transformer can be reduced with the use
of laminations and insulation.
 Constructional Details
The requirements of magnetic
material are,
 High permeability
 Low reluctance
 High saturation flux density
 Smaller area under B-H curve

For small transformers, the

laminations are in the form of
E,I, C and O as shown in figure
The percentage of silicon in
the steel is about 3.5. Above
this value the steel becomes
very brittle and also very hard 19

to cut
• In laminated cores, thin layers of steel
laminations are stacked over one another to make
the core.
•These layers stay insulated from one-another by
thin non-conducting layer of insulation.
• One common design of laminated core is made
from interleaved stacks of E-shaped steel sheets
capped with I-shaped pieces,leading to its name of
"E-I transformer".
• It exhibits more losses, but
is very economical to
manufacture.
 TOROIDAL CORE
• They are built around a ring-shaped core made from a
long strip of silicon steel wound into a coil, powdered
iron, or ferrite.
• Grain boundaries are optimally aligned,
• Improved efficiency
• Reduced core reluctance.
• Closed ring shape eliminates
air gaps inherent in the
construction of an E-I core.
Toroidal Core
 .

• Cross-section of the ring is usually square or rectangular.

• Primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to
cover the entire surface of the core.
• This minimizes the length of wire needed, and also provides
screening to minimize the core's magnetic field from generating
electromagnetic interference.
• Other advantages include smaller size, lower weight, less noise,
lower leakage, low off-load
losses, single-bolt mounting,
and greater choice of shapes.
• Disadvantages are higher cost and
limited power capacity
 AIR CORE
• Produced simply by placing the windings in close
proximity to each other.
• Air is essentially lossless. Hence, hysteresis loss is
eliminated.
• They have very high bandwidth, and are frequently
employed in radio-frequency applications.
• The leakage inductance is
inevitably high, resulting in very
poor regulation, and so such
designs are unsuitable for use in
power distribution.
 2.Shell-Type Transformer
In shell-type transformers the core surrounds a
considerable portion of the windings. The comparison is
shown in the figure below.
The coils are form-wound but are multi layer
disc type usually wound in the form of pancakes.

Paper is used to insulate the different layers of

the multi-layer discs.

The whole winding consists of discs stacked

with insulation spaces between the coils.

These insulation spaces form the horizontal

cooling and insulating ducts.
 Such a transformer may have the shape of a
simple rectangle or may also have a distributed
form. Both designs are shown in the figure below:
3- phase Transformer Shell type
3- phase Transformer core type
 Winding types
Types of windings-
• Concentric
• Sandwich

Concentric
Lower voltage winding closest
to Iron
 Winding types

Sandwich or Pancake

Low voltage and high voltage winding

in sections
Core Type Shell
Type
Winding arrangements for single-phase
transformers
 Comparison between
Core & Shell Type
Description Core Type Shell Type
Construction Easy to assemble & Dismantle Complex

Mechanical Strength Low High

Leakage reactance Higher Smaller

Cooling Better cooling of Winding Better cooling of Core

Repair Easy Hard

Applications High Voltage & Low output Low Voltages & Large Output

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 CRGO Material
• Grain oriented Electrical Steels are iron-silicon alloys that
provide low core loss and high permeability needed for more
efficient and economical electrical transformers.
• CRGO Grain oriented grades of electrical steel are typically
used in Transformer and large generators.
• Important physical properties of Electrical steels
(CRGO) include resistivity, saturation induction, magneto-
crystalline anisotropy.
• Resistivity, which is quite low in iron, increases markedly
with the addition of silicon.
• Higher resistivity lessens the core loss by reducing the eddy
current component. Raising the silicon content reduces the
aging of the material.
 Mitred Joint
• A miter joint, sometimes shortened to miter, is a joint
made by beveling each of two parts to be joined,
usually at a 45°/ 45°angle or 35°/55° to form a
corner, usually a 90° angle.
• In square core when bending of conductor takes
place its mechanical strength decreases.

• Foe higher area of core, a circular cross section

is required so that we can have minimum Mean
Length Turn(MLT).

• Practically, the circular type of assembling is not

possible hence we use stepped cores.
Stepped Core
Transformer Core
Stepped Core Construction

40
 Cooling of Cores

• In small sized cores:- no special

arrangement for cooling is required.
• If Diameter of Core > 0.35m, longitudinal
ducts for cooling are provided where width of
duct is 6mm(approx).
• If Diameter > 0.8m, ducts have to be
provided on both sides, longitudinal as well
as transverse ducts.
Cooling of transformers

42
 Transformer Core

Hw
Ww

Core Type

Shell Type
43
CONSERVATOR AND BREATHER
• It is required to keep the oil clean and dry. With the
rise of temperature, the oil level increases.
• Rise of temperature depends on the load of the
transformer. If load increases, oil expands. If load
decreases, contraction of oil occurs.
• Smaller transformers are not totally filled by oils,
some space is left between tank walls and oil, which
is occupied by air.
• The tank is connected to the atmosphere through a
vent pipe. Air is expelled out if oil expands. Air is
drawn from the atmosphere if oil contracts.
• When air enters the transformer, it is required to
extract moisture from the air.
• An apparatus known as breather is used to
extract moisture from the air.
• It is a small container connected to the vent
pipe containing a dehydrating material such
as silica gel crystal impregnated with cobalt
chloride.
• The color of the material is blue when it is
dry. It becomes whitish pink when it is
damp.
• In front of the container, a glass window is
provided to observe the color of the
material.
• If the transformer becomes overloaded, it
overheats the oil and sludge formation occurs in
the presence of air.
• If transformer suffers short circuit, temperature rise
becomes very high and this causes vaporization of
a part of the oil, which forms an explosive mixture
with air. This explosive mixture can ignite and
cause considerable damage.
• To prevent the air coming in contact with air as well
as moisture, conservators are used.
• It takes the responsibility of expansion and
contraction of oil without allowing it to come into
contact with air.
• The conservator is an air-tight cylindrical drum
mounted on or near the cover of the transformer. It
is connected to the transformer through a small
pipe. In fig, breather and conservator are shown.
 Conservator

It acts as a reservoir for transformer

insulating oil.
• As the level of oil rises and falls inside the
conservator, air enters and leaves the chamber.
The air may carry moisture which may cause the
oil to deteriorate. Breathers filled with silica gels
are provided to separate moisture from the
aspirated air.

The silica gel turns blue when it becomes

saturated with moisture after which it needs to
be replaced.
 Buchholz Relay

• Used for protection of oil filled transformer from

incipient faults below oil level.

• The gas generated passes up in pipe and gets

trapped in the relay housing, the oil level in the relay
drops.

• When a major fault occur the oil pressure increases.

The oil rushes to conservator.

• Close the mercury switch to trip the circuit breaker.

Buchholz Relay
 Breather

• The dust particles in the air get trapped by the oil

in the oil seal cup.

• The oil in the oil sealing cup acts as barrier

between silica gel crystal and air when there is no
flow of air through silica gel breather.
 Magnetic oil gauge
• When oil level drops below set point the
mercury switch is closed by a cam and
initiates an alarm.
 Temperature Indicators

Oil temperature indicator:

• The oil temperature indicator is provided with a sensing bulb
placed in an oil filled pocket on the transformer tank cover.
• The dial type thermometer measure the top oil temperature.

Winding temperature indicator:

• The sensing bulb pocket on transformer top cover is heated by a
heater coil surrounded it.
• This heater coil is fed by secondary of current transformers
associated with transformer winding.
 Insulations

Dry type Transformers:

Varnish
Enamel
Large size Transformers:
Unimpregnated paper
Cloths
Immersed in Transformer oil – insulation & coolent

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 Classification Based On Cooling
• Dry Transformer – Air Cooled
• Oil immersed Transformer – Oil Cooled
• Oil is filled in tank and transformer inside it.
• First alphabet defines medium used for cooling which is cooling
winding.
• A-air, O-oil, G-gas, W-water, S-solid insulator.
• Air and Oil are mostly used.
• Second alphabet defines the method of circulation.
• N – Natural, B – Blast, F - Forced.
• Since no transformer is truly an “ideal”
transformer, each will incur a certain amount of
energy loss, mainly that which is converted to
heat.
• Methods of removing this heat can depend on the
application, the size of the unit, and the amount
of heat that needs to be dissipated.
• The insulating medium inside a transformer,
usually oil, serves multiple purposes, first to act
as an insulator, and second to provide a good
medium through which to remove the heat.
• The windings and core are the primary sources of
heat, although internal metallic structures can
act as a heat source as well.
• It is imperative to have proper cooling ducts and
passages in the proximity of the heat sources
through which the cooling medium can flow so
that the heat can be effectively removed from
the transformer.
• The natural circulation of oil through a
transformer through convection has been referred
to as a “thermosiphon” effect.
• The heat is carried by the insulating medium until
it is transferred through the transformer tank wall
to the external environment.
• Radiators, typically detachable, provide an
increase in the surface area available for heat
transfer by convection without increasing the
size of the tank.
• In smaller transformers, integral tubular sides or
fins are used to provide this increase in surface
area.
• Fans can be installed to increase the volume of
air moving across the cooling surfaces, thus
increasing the rate of heat dissipation.
• Larger transformers that cannot be effectively cooled using
radiators and fans rely on pumps that circulate oil through
the transformer and through external heat exchangers, or
coolers, which can use air or water as a secondary cooling
medium.
• Allowing liquid to flow through the transformer windings
by natural convection is identified as “nondirected flow.”
• In cases where pumps are used, and even some instances
where only fans and radiators are being used, the liquid is
often guided into and through some or all of the windings.
• This is called “directed flow” in that there is some degree
of control of the flow of the liquid through the windings.
• The use of auxiliary equipment such as fans and pumps
with coolers, called forced circulation, increases the
cooling and thereby the rating of the transformer without
increasing the unit’s physical size.
• Ratings are determined based on the temperature of the
unit as it coordinates with the cooling equipment that is
operating.
• First alphabet defines medium used for
cooling the windings.
• A-air, O-oil, G-gas, W-water, S-solid insulator.
• Air and Oil are mostly used.
• Second alphabet defines the method of
circulation.
• N – Natural, B – Blast, F - Forced.
• Usually, a transformer will have multiple ratings
corresponding to multiple stages of cooling, as the
supplemental cooling equipment can be set to run only at
increased loads.
• Methods of cooling for liquid-immersed transformers have
been arranged into cooling classes identified by a four-
letter designation as follows:
Table for symbols
• This system of identification has come about through
standardization between different international
standards organizations and represents a change from
what has traditionally been used in the U.S. Where OA
classified a transformer as liquid-immersed self-cooled
in the past, it is now designated by the new system as
ONAN.
• Similarly, the previous FA classification is now identified
as ONAF.
• FOA could be OFAF or ODAF, depending on whether
directed oil flow is employed or not.
• In some cases, there are transformers with directed
flow in windings without forced circulation through
cooling equipment.
• An example of multiple ratings would be
ONAN/ONAF/ONAF, where the transformer has a
base rating where it is cooled by natural
convection and two supplemental ratings where
groups of fans are turned on to provide additional
cooling so that the transformer will be capable of
supplying additional kVA.
• This rating would have been designated
OA/FA/FA per past standards.
 Cooling of transformers
 Methods of cooling:
1. Air Natural (AN)-upto 1.5MVA
2. Air Blast (AB)
3. Oil natural (ON) – Upto 10 MVA
4. Oil Natural – Air Forced (ONAF)
5. Oil Forced– Air Natural (OFAN) – 30 MVA
6. Oil Forced– Air Forced (OFAF)
7. Oil Natural – Water Forced (ONWF) – Power plants
8. Oil Forced - Water Forced (OFWF) – Power plants
Constructional Details

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79
80
Constructional Details

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Constructional Details

82
TRANSFORMER
WINDINGS
 INTRODUCTION
• Main purpose of a winding is to convert the energy
on the primary side to a different voltage level on
the secondary side.
• They are broadly classified as circular &
rectangular.
• Generally circular windings are used for all
the types of transformers invariably.
• Rectangular windings involve wastage of space &
under short current conditions it gets deformed.
Hence is used for very small capacity
transformers.
 Type & arrangement of
windings depends on some
factors
1.Current rating
2.Short circuit strength
3.Temperature rise
4.Impedance
5.Surge voltage
6.Transport facilities.
 Types Of Windings

1.Cylindrical Windings
2.Helical Windings (Single and Multiple)
3.Cross-over Windings
4.Disc & Continuous Disc Windings
5.Aluminium Foil Windings
 Cylindrical windings
• Cylindrical windings are layered type and use
either rectangular or round conductors.
• Conductors are wound on the flat side with their longer
sides parallel to the core axis.
• The layered winding may have conductors wound
in one, two or more layers and is, therefore,
accordingly called the one, two or multi-layered
winding.
• Cylindrical windings employing rectangular conductors
are used mainly as low voltage windings upto 6.6 kV
for kVA ratings up to 600-750.
• They are wound on a solid paper bakelite
cylinder.
• In order to improve cooling conditions of the inner
layer, these are often wound on vertical strips
forming an oil duct, between winding &insulating
cylinder.
 Helical Windings

• Helical windings are mostly used for LV coils of

medium & high capacity transformers with currents
as high as say 2000 A.
• Here, axial spacing strips are provided for duct
formation to improve oil circulation for better
cooling.
• The ducts are formed by spacers placed all the
way round the periphery of the cylinder at
regular intervals.
 Transposition of helical
winding
• For uniform division of current between the
parallel conductors, they are transposed so that
each conductor may take each possible position.
 Cross-over windings
• Suitable for current rating not exceeding about 25 A.
• Mostly used for HV windings of low rating
transformers where number of turns may be large
but conductors are of small cross sections with
double cotton covering or paper covering.
• The whole cross-over winding is divided into a
number of coils depending upon the voltage rating.
• Each coil is wound over a former with several number
of layers & many number of turns per layer.
• The coil ends, one from inside and other from outside
are joined to other similar coils in series.
 Cross over winding
• Various coils are separated by blocks of
insulating material to allow free oil circulation.
 Continuous Disc Windings
• A Continuous disc winding consists of several discs & in
each disc there are radially wound strip conductors so
that there may be several layers in each disc.
• Layers are wound spirally from inside outwards.
• The discs are separated from each other by press board
sectors.
• The winding is named “Continuous Disc” as it is wound
with a continuous conductor without a single joint.
• These are reliable & strong and therefore are widely
used both as LV& HV coils in large capacity
transformers.
 Aluminium foil Windings

• Aluminium in place of copper can be used as a

material for conductors in any of the windings.
• Aluminium, when used as a single section has
many disadvantages compared to copper.
• Hence are employed in foil windings, because it
can be rolled to thinner &more flexible sheets than
copper.
Windings used in core type
transformer
Selection of windings
Tapchangers, Bushings
and Transformer oil
A tap changer is a device fitted to
power transformers for regulation
of the output voltage to required
levels. This is normally achieved by
changing the ratios of the
transformers on the system by
altering the number of turns in one
winding of the appropriate
transformer/s. Tap changers offer
variable control to keep the supply
voltage within the limits. The 2 ½%
step can be used on transformers
with automatic tap changing
equipment.
conservator
Explosion Vent
HV Bushing
Buchholz Relay

MOG LV Bushing

PRV
Radiator

Main
Tank

Cooling
Fan
OLTC

Top View of Power Transformer

 Necessity of tapchangers

• To compensate the variation of applied

voltage on bulk supply system and other
system transformers.
• To compensate for regulation within
transformer and maintain the output voltage
constant.
• Control of reactive power flow in system.
• Compensate the factors that not accurately
known at the time of planning of system.
• To allow future changes in existing system
 Principle of tap changers

V1/ V2 = N1/ N2 = I2 / I1

With the change of N1 or N2 ,the output

voltage of transformer as well as current will
change.
Thus by changing the turns ratio, the variation
in voltage is achieved
 Types of tap changers

• Off load: The change in tap position done

with when transformer is in off load
condition. Mainly distribution transformers
having such tapchangers.

• On load: A selector switch device, which

may include current interrupting contactors,
used to change transformer taps with the
transformer energized and carrying full load.
Conditions for on load tap change operation

• Load current must not be interrupted during

tap change operation.
• No section of the transformer winding may
be short-circuited during a tapchange
 Types of OLTC

 Reactor type: A centre tap reactor is used as tap

changing impedance. Shorter contact life due to
longer arcing time.
 Resistance type:A Resistance is used as tap
changing impedance. Higher contact life due to
relatively shorter arcing time with unity power
factor.
 Single Compartment Type – Those which carry out tap selection
and switching on the same contact.
 Double Compartment Type- Separate contact available for tap
selection and switching operation.
 How inside tank OLTC look like

Mild steel tank

Phase board

Copper leads
Main contact
Auxiliary contact

Selector switch arm

Fixed contact (cu & tungsten)

Driving shaft
Collector ring

Transition resistance
 Fixed contact

Tungsten part

Copper part
Moving contacts

Main moving contacts

Auxiliary contacts or transition resistance

contacts

Selector switch arm

Tightness adjustment spring between

Fixed and moving contacts
 Transition resistances

Material of resistance: nickel+chromium=nichrome

Internals of Drive Mechanism box

LCS switch(raise /lower)

CSS switch(local/remote)
Electrical counter

DSS switch

HAND INTERLOCK
SWITCH
 Main Testing on OLTC:

Winding Resistance: Winding Resistance are measured in field to

check for following in OLTCs:
1. Loose Connections
2. Broken Strands
3. Shorted Turns
4. High Contact Resistance of OLTC
Transformer turns ratio: To be done when tap leads are disturbed.
BDV testing of oil: should not be below 40 KV.
check BDV once in a six months.
 Bushings:

• There are two types of bushings on power Transformers:

• Oil Communicating Type & Condenser Type Bushings.
• Oil Communicating Type Bushings:
Transformer winding are connected to the external circuit through
terminal bushings. these bushings are installed on the top or side
walls of the transformer tank. The lower end of the bushing protrudes
in to the tank and at both their ends are provided with suitable
fasteners to connect the line lead inside the transformer to an external
conductor outside it.
Shape and size of bushing depends up on the voltage level.
These bushings are used up to 36 kV voltage Level.
 Condenser Type Bushings:

• Generally these
bushings are used for
72.5 kV & above.
• These bushings
contain their own oil
and are sealed to
retain the same.
Oil communicating type bushings:
 FUNCTIONS OF TRANSFORMER OIL
•INSULATION
•COOLING MEDIUM
•TO QUENCH ARCS
•DISSOLVE GASES GENERATED /EXPOSED TO

IDEAL TRANSFORMER OIL HAVE:

LOW DENSITY
LOW VISCOSITY
LOW POUR POINT
HIGH FLASH POINT
 HIGH CHEMICAL STABILITY
LOW DISSIPATION FACTOR
HIGH ELECTRIC STRENGTH
HIGH VOLUME RESISTIVITY
NON TOXIC
CHEAP AND EASILY AVAILABLE
COMPATIBLE WITH TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS.
 Output Equation of Transformer
 It relates the rated kVA output to the area of core & window
 The output kVA of a transformer depends on,
 Flux Density (B) – related to Core area
 Ampere Turns (AT) – related to Window area
 Window – Space inside the core – to accommodate primary & secondary
winding
Let,
T- No. of turns in transformer winding
f – Frequency of supply
Induced EMF/Turn , Et = E / T=4.44 f φm 116
 Output Equation of Transformer
 Window in a 1φ transformer contains one primary & one secondary
winding.
Conductor area in Window
Window Space factor,K w 
Total area of Window
Ac
Window Space factor,K w 
Aw
 Conductor area in window, A c  K w A w  (2)
Current Density () is same in both the windings
Ip I
   s  (3)
ap a s
117
 Output Equation of Transformer
Ip Is
ap  ; as 
 
If we neglect magnetizing MMF, then (AT)primary = (AT)secondary
AT=IpTp=IsTs  (4)
Total Cu. Area in window, Ac=Cu.area of pry wdg + Cu.area of sec wdg
No. of pry turns X area  No. of sec turns X area 
 
  
of X - section of pry conductor of X - section of sec conductor
 Tp a p  Ts a s
 Tp a p  Ts a s
Ip Is
 Tp  Ts
 

1

TpIp  TsIs 
118
1 2AT
 AT  AT   (5)
 
 Output Equation of Transformer
Therefore, equating (2) & (5),
2 AT
KwAw 

1
AT  K w A w   ( 6)
2
kVA rating of 1φ transformer is given by,
Q  VpIp  10 -3  EpIp  10 -3
Ep  E
 TpIp  10 - 3  from (1), E 
T 
t
Tp 
 E t  AT  10 3  (6)
1
 4.44 fm . K w A w   10 3
2 119

 2.22  fm  K w A w   10 3
 Output Equation of Transformer
m
We know that, Bm  and m  Bm A i
Ai
 Q  2.22  f Bm A i A w K w   10 3 kVA
Three phase transformer:
 Each window has 2 primary & 2 Secondary
windings.
 Total Cu. Area in the window is given by, Hw

A c  2Tp a p  2Ts a s Ww

4 AT
Ac   (7)

4 AT
Compare (2) & (7),   KwAw
 120

K A 
AT  w w
4
 Output Equation of Transformer
kVA rating of 3φ transformer,
Q  3 EpIp  10 3
Ep
3 TpIp  10 - 3
Tp
 E t  AT  10 3
1
 3  4.44  fm .  K w A w   10 3
4
 3.33 f Bm A i A wK w   10 3 kVA

121
 EMF per Turn
 Design of Transformer starts with EMF/turn.
Let, Ratio of Specific magnetic loading r  m
 
to Electric loading  AT
Q  VpIp  10 3
 4.44 f m TpIp  10 3
 4.44 f m ( AT)  10 3
m
 4.44 f m  10 3
r
Q r Q  r  10 3
m 
2
3

4.44 f  10 4.44 f
Q  r  10 3 122
m 
4.44 f
 EMF per Turn
w.k.t , E t  4.44 f m
Q  r  10 3 Q
 4.44 f  4.44 f  4.44 f  r  10 .
3

4.44 f 4.44 f
 4.44 f  r  10 3  Q
Et  K  Q

where, K  4.44 f  r  10 3

 K depends on the type, service condition & method of construction of

transformer.
123
 EMF per Turn

Transformer Type Value of K

1φ Shell Type 1.0 to 1.2
1φ Core Type 0.75 to 0.85
3φ Shell Type 1.2 to 1.3
3φ Core Type Distribution 0.45 to 0.5
Transformer

3φ Core Type Power transformer 0.6 to 0.7

124
 Optimum Design

 Transformer may be designed to make one of the following

quantitites as minimum.
i. Total Volume
ii. Total Weight
iii. Total Cost
iv. Total Losses
 In general, these requirements are contradictory & it is
normally possible to satisfy only one of them.
 All these quantities vary with m 125
r 
AT
 Optimum Design
Design for Minimum Cost

Let us consider a single phase transformer.

 Q  2.22  f Bm A i A w K w   10 3 kVA
Q  2.22  f Bm A i A c   10 3 kVA  A c  K w A w 
Assuming that φ & B are constant, Ac.Ai – Constant
Let, Ac Ai  M 2  (1)
In optimum design, it aims to determining the minimum value of
total cost. r  m
AT
m  Bm A i 126
1 Ac
AT  K w A w  
2 2
 Optimum Design
Design for Minimum Cost
Bm A i 2 Bm A i
r 
Ac Ac
2
A i 2 Bm
r
Ac 
Ai 
 r    ( 2)
Ac 2 Bm
β is the function of r alone [δ & Bm – Constant]
From (1) & (2),
M
 A A  M 
c i
2

Ai  M  & Ac 

127
 Optimum Design
Design for Minimum Cost
Let, Ct - Total cost of transformer active materials
Ci – Cost of iron
Cc – Cost of conductor
pi – Loss in iron/kg (W)
pc – Loss in Copper/kg (W)
li – Mean length of flux path in iron(m)
Lmt – Mean length of turn of transformer winding (m)
Gi – Weight of active iron (kg)
Gc – Weight of Copper (kg)
gi – Weight/m3 of iron
gc – Weight/m3 of Copper
C t  Ci  Cc  c iGi  c c Gc
128
 Optimum Design
Design for Minimum Cost
C t  ci g ili A i  cc g c Lmt A c
where , ci & cc  specific cos ts of iron and copper respective ly .
M
C t  c i giliM   c c gc Lmt

Differeniating Ct with respect to β,
d 1 1
C t  ci g ili M() 1/ 2  c c g c Lmt M3 / 2
d 2 2
d
For minimum cost, Ct  0
d
1 1
c i giliM() 1/ 2  c c gc LmtM 3 / 2
2 2
c i gili  c c gc Lmt 1
Ac 129

c i gili  c c gc Lmt
Ai
 Optimum Design
Design for Minimum Cost
c i gili A i  c c gc Lmt A c
ci G i  c c G c
Ci  C c
Hence for minimum cost, the cost of iron must be equal to the
cost of copper.
Similarly,
For minimum volume of transformer,
Gi Gc
Volume of iron = Volume of Copper  or G i  gi
gi gc Gc gc

For minimum weight of transformer,

Weight of iron = Weight of Conductor Gi  G c

For minimum loss, 130

Iron loss = I2R loss in conductor Pi  x Pc
2
 Optimum Design
Design for Minimum Loss and Maximum Efficiency

Total losses at full load = Pi+Pc

At any fraction x of full load, total losses = Pi+x2Pc
If output at a fraction of x of full load is xQ.
xQ
Efficiency, x 
xQ  Pi  x 2 Pc d x
Condition for maximum efficiency is, 0
dx
dx xQ  Pi  x 2 Pc Q - Q  2xPc xQ
 0
dx xQ  Pi  x Pc 
2 2

xQ  P  x P Q  Q  2xP xQ

i
2
c c

xQ  P  x P   Q  2xP x
i
2
c c

xQ  Pi  x 2 Pc  xQ  x 2 Pc  x 2 Pc 131

Pi  x 2 Pc
 Optimum Design
Design for Minimum Loss and Maximum Efficiency

Variable losses = Constant losses

Pi piG i

Pc pcG c
piG i Gi 2 pc
x 
2
or x for maximum efficiency
pcG c Gc pi

132
DESIGN OF CORE
 Design of Core
• Core type transformer : Rectangular/Square /Stepped cross section
• Shell type transformer : Rectangular cross section
• Stacking Factor- the net cross sectional area is obtained
from the dimensions of various packets and an allowance is
made for the space lost between lamination ; this allowance
is known as stacking factor.
• Utilisation factor – Ratio of net cross sectional area to the
gross area of the core circle.

134
 DESIGN OF CORE
• Core design is governed by rating of transformer, its operating
conditions and transport limitations.

• The core cross section may be square, rectangular or stepped.

• For best economic use of core and conductor material, the

core cross section should be circular.

• Circular cross section is impractical as it would require the use

of a large number of laminations of different sizes

• In stepped cores, the length of mean turn decreases with an

increase in the number of steps, but the number of different
sizes of laminations increases.

• While designing a stepped core a balance has to be struck

between the cost of conductor and labour charges.
 RECTANGULAR CORE

•Used for core type distribution transformers and small

power transformers for moderate and low voltage.

• Ratio of depth to width of core varies between 1.4 to 2.

• Shell type transformers also use cores with rectangular

cross section.

• For a shell type transformer width of central limb is 2 to

3 times the depth of the core.

•Rectangular shaped coils are used for rectangular cores.

 SQUARE AND CRUCIFORM CORES
• High voltage distribution and power transformers require circular
coils due to their superior mechanical characteristics.

• For large transformers, it becomes wasteful to use rectangular

cores.

• Hence, square cores are used along with circular coils.

• 2 stepped or cruciform cores utilize space better than square

cores.

• Larger transformers make use of cruciform cores to reduce

copper losses and conductor costs.

• A cruciform core makes use of 2 different sizes of laminations.

 d a

SQUARE CORE

d : circumscribing radius
a : side of square
 d : circumscribing radius
a  d cos
b  d sin 
To maximize area for a given diameter:

  3145‘
b a = 0.85 d
b = 0.53 d
a
d

CRUCIFORM CORE
 MULTI STEPPED CORES
• With
an increase in the number of steps core space is utilized
more effectively.

• Multi stepped cores also reduce the length of mean turn with
consequent reduction in both cost of copper and copper loss.

• Theoretically there would be a reduction in cost of winding with

an increase in the number of steps.

• With an increase in the number of steps a large number of

laminations have to be used, which leads to higher labour
charges.

• The reduction in winding costs with a certain number of steps

has to be balanced with the extra labour costs.
 Design of Core
Rectangular Core
 For core type distribution transformer & small power
transformer for moderate & low voltages

Depth
 1.4 to 2
Width
Rectangular coils are used.
 For shell type,

Width of Central limb 141

 2 to 3
Depth of Core
 Design of Core
Square & Stepped Core
 Used when circular coils are required for high voltage
distribution and power transformer.
 Circular coils are preferred for their better mechanical
strength.

 Circle representing the inner surface of the tubular form 142

carrying the windings (Circumscribing Circle)
 Design of Core
Square & Stepped Core

 Dia of Circumscribing circle is larger in Square core than

Stepped core with the same area of cross section.
 Thus the length of mean turn(Lmt) is reduced in stepped core
and reduces the cost of copper and copper loss.
 However, with large number of steps, a large number of
different sizes of laminations are used.

143
 Design of Core
Square Core

Let, d - diameter of circumscribing circle

a – side of square
Diameter, d  a 2  a 2  2a 2  2  a
d
a
2 2
 d 
Gross core area, Agi  Area of square  a   
2

 2
Agi  0.5d 2
Let the stacking factor, Sf=0.9. 144

Net core area, Ai  0.9  0.5d 2  0.45d 2

 Design of Core
Square Core

 Gross core area includes insulation area

 Net core area excludes insulation area
 2
Area of Circumscribing circle is d
4
Ratio of net core area to Area of Circumscribing circle is
0.45d 2
 0.58
 2
d
4
Ratio of gross core area to Area
2
of Circumscribing circle is
0.5d
 0.64 145
 2
d
4
 Design of Core
Square Core

Useful ratio in design – Core area factor,

Net Core area

KC 
Square of Circumscribing Circle
2
Ai 0.45d
 2  2  0.45
d d
146
 Design of Core
Stepped Core or Cruciform Core

Let,a – Length of the rectangle

b – breadth of the rectangle
d – diameter of the circumscribing circle and diagonal
of the rectangle.
θ – Angle b/w the diagonal and length of the rectangle.
b  The max. core area for a given ‘d’ is
(a-b)/2
obtained by the max value of ‘θ’
 For max value of ‘θ’,
d b a dA gi
θ 0
d
(a-b)/2
 From the figure,
a 147
a cos     a  d cos 
d
b
sin    b  d sin 
d
 Design of Core
Stepped Core or Cruciform Core
b

Two stepped core can be divided in to 3 rectangles.

(a-b)/2
Referring to the fig shown,
d
ab ab b a
Gross core area, Agi  ab   b   b θ
 2   2 
(a-b)/2
2(a  b)
 ab  b
2
a
 ab  ab  b 2  2ab  b 2
On substituting ‘a’ and ‘b’ in the above equations,
A gi  2(d cos )(d sin )  (d sin ) 2
A gi  2d 2 cos  sin   d 2 sin 2 
A gi  d 2 sin 2  d 2 sin 2 
For max value of ‘θ’, 148
dA gi
0
d
 Design of Core
Stepped Core or Cruciform Core
dA gi
i.e.,  d 2 2 cos 2  d 2 2 sin  cos   0
d
d 2 2 cos 2  d 2 2 sin  cos 
2 cos 2  sin 2
sin 2
2
cos 2
tan 2  2
2  tan 1 2 

  tan 1 2   31.720
1
2
Therefore, if the θ=31.720, the dimensions ‘a’ & ‘b’ will give
maximum area of core for a specified ‘d’.
a 149
cos     a  d cos   a  d cos(31.720 )  0.85d
d
b
sin    b  d sin   b  d sin( 31.720 )  0.53d
d
 Design of Core
Stepped Core or Cruciform Core
Gross core area,
A gi  2ab  b 2
A gi  2(0.85d)(0.53d)  (0.53d) 2
A gi  0.618d 2
Let stacking factor, S f  0.9,
Net core area, Ai  Stacking factor X Gross Core area
Ai  0.9  0.618d 2  0.56d 2
The ratios,
Net core area 0.56d 2
  0.71
Area of Circumscri bing circle 
d2
4 150
Gross core area 0.618d 2
  0.79
Area of Circumscri bing circle  2
d
4
151
 Design of Core
Stepped Core or Cruciform Core
Core area factor,
Net Core area
KC 
Square of Circumscri bing Circle
A i 0.56d 2
 2  2
 0.56
d d
Ratios of Multi-stepped Cores,
Ratio Square Core Cruciform Core 3-Stepped Core 4-Stepped Core

Net core area 0.64 0.79 0.84 0.87

Area of Circumscribing circle

Gross core area 0.58 0.71 0.75 0.78

Area of Circumscribing circle
152

Core area factor,KC 0.45 0.56 0.6 0.62

MOST ECONOMICAL DIMENSIONS FOR MULTI
STEPPED CORES
AREA AS A SQUARE CRUCIFORM THREE FOUR
PERCENTAGE STEPPED STEPPED
OF AREA OF
CIRCUMSCRIBIN
G CIRCLE
GROSS CORE 64 % 79 % 84 % 87 %
AREA

NET CORE AREA 58 % 71 % 75 % 78 %

NET CORE AREA 0.45 d2 0.56 d2 0.60 d2 0.62 d2

 Variation of core diameter
• Higher core diameter increase cross sectional area of the
core, thereby increasing voltage per turn.
• Higher voltage per turn reduces the number of turns in various
windings. Since the percentage reactance of the windings is
directly proportional to the number of winding turns and
diameter of coils and inversely proportional to volts per turn and
coil depth hence to have specified percentage reactance , coil
depth is to be reduced with increase of coil dimension in lateral
direction.
• This results in increase in core diameter and reduction in core
height . In spite of reduction of core height, due to increase of core
diameter ,the core weight increase thereby increasing the no load
loss of the transformer. Number of winding turns is reduced
though length of mean turn increases.
• The net effect reduces the weight of copper and obviously
reduces copper loss in winding. On the other hand reduction of
core diameter results in reduced core weight alongwith lower no
load loss but increased copper weight and higher copper loss.
Selection of core area and type of core
• Stepped core cross section is preferred to obtain the optimum
core area within the circumscribing circle of the core .
• The core area is determined by the number of steps, grade of
steel , insulation or laminations and type of clamping. With
increase of no. of steps core area increases.
• Selection of type of core depends upon the rating ,operation duty
and transport limitations . For large three phase transformers,
five limbed core is recommended to overcome the problem of
higher height of the core . For single phase transformers, one
centre-wound limb with two return limbs is a common
configuration.
• Area of core is found out using
Net core area required Ai = φ/B
Gross core area Agi = Ai / ki
 CHOICE OF FLUX DENSITY
• Advantages of higher value of flux density :
1. Reduction in length of mean turn
2. Saving of copper in winding
3. Smaller core area
4. Reduction in net weight of transformer

• Disadvantages of higher value of flux density :

1. Higher leakage reactance
2. Increase in core loss
3. Lower Efficiency
4. Higher temperature rise
5. Large magnetizing current which contains objectionable
harmonics
 CHOICE OF FLUX DENSITY
Value of flux density chosen depends on the service
conditions of the transformer.

• Distribution transformer has to be designed for a high all

day efficiency, hence it necessitates a lower value of flux
density in order to keep down the iron losses.

• Power transformers are designed to have maximum

efficiency at or near full load, hence they require a higher
value of flux density.

• In case of power transformers inherent voltage regulation

is less important than the current limiting effect of the
higher leakage reactance.
 VALUES OF FLUX DENSITY
• The values of maximum flux density using hot rolled silicon
steel are :

1. Distribution Transformer : 1.1 to 1.35 Wb/m2

2. Power Transformer : 1.25 to 1.45 Wb/m2
Lower values should be used for small rating transformers.

• For transformers using CRGO steel, the following values

may be used :

1. For transformers upto 132 kV : 1.55 Wb/m2

2. For transformers upto 275 kV : 1.60 Wb/m2
3. For 400 kV and generator transformers : 1.70 to 1.75
Wb/m2
DESIGN OF WINDINGS

For Primary and Secondary Windings

Vp Vs
Tp  Ts 
Et Et

Tp, Ts: No. of turns in primary and secondary winding

Vp, Vs: Voltage of primary and secondary side
Et: Voltage per turn (same on both side)
Cont…

• But no. of turns in l.v. winding is determined

in preliminary design.
Vl .v.
Tl .v.  An integer
Et

• H.V. winding turns per phase

Vh.v.
Th.v.   Tl .v.
Vl .v.
Tappings on h.v. side:-

• If the tappings are located in the middle part of and

h.v. winding, the number of winding turns must be
even to ensure the symmetry of winding.
• For a winding with tapping, it is necessary to have
proper turn ratio not only on the principal tapping
but on the other taps as well. Therefore, turns
should be selected judiously.
 Area of conductor and current density:-

• Current density is chosen before finding area

of the conductor.
• High value of current density result in
excessive increase in temperature.
• Primary and Secondary currents are given
by:
kVA Vp
Ip  10 3
Is  I p
Vp Vs
Cont…

• Area of each primary and secondary

conductor is ap and as respectively:
Ip Is
ap  as 
p s
Current densities of secondary and primary
s  p respectively

• Volume of conductor in primary and

secondary windings are Up and Us
respectively.
Cont…

• Thus total volume of conductor is Ut. And it is

assumed to be constant.
• I2R loss in primary is  U p
2
p

• I2R loss in secondary is  Ut  U p 

2
s

• Total loss

Pc    U p   U t  U p
2
p
2
s  
• Differentiating Pc wrt Up

dPc
dU p

   p2   s2 
• For minimum loss

dPc
 0
dU p
 p  s
Therefore, for minimum loss, the value of current density in
each of the two winding should be equal.
Practically, however, current density in the relatively better cooled
outer winding is made 5% greater than the inner winding.
 CHOICE OF CURRENT DENSITY
• Copper losses depend on the choice of current density.
• Different values of current density are chosen for distribution
and power transformers as the level of iron and copper
losses required is different .
• The following values of current density for different types of
transformers maybe used:

•Distribution, small /medium power transformers : 1.1 to 2.3 A/mm2

•Large power transformers, self oil cooled type : 2.2 to 3.2 A/mm2
•Large power transformers, forced circulation of oil :4 to 6.2 A/mm2

• To minimize copper losses the values of current density in

both the windings should be the same.

• In Practice, the current density in outer winding is made 5 %

greater than the inner winding on account of better cooling in
outer winding.
 SELECTION OF WINDINGS
• Winding should be selected such that the desired electrical
characteristics and adequate mechanical strength is obtained.

• In case more than one winding is suitable, the winding with

simple constructional features should be selected.
• High voltage windings are usually of the following types :
1. Cylindrical winding with circular conductors.
2. Cross-over winding with either circular or small rectangular
conductors.
3. Continuous disc type winding with rectangular conductors.

• The cylindrical and cross-over windings are used for

transformers of ratings upto 1000 kVA and 33 kV.

• The disc type winding is used for transformers of higher

ratings ranging from 200 kVA and voltages from 11kV upwards.
 SELECTION OF WINDINGS

• Thelow voltage windings are usually of the following types :

1. Cylindrical Winding
2. Helical winding

• Both these windings employ rectangular conductors.

• Cylindrical windings are used for ratings upto 800 kVA and
voltages upto 433 V.

• Helical winding can be used for ratings upto tens of MVA and
voltages upto 33 kV.

• Sandwich windings are used in shell type transformers.

 RANGES OF DIFFERENT WINDING TYPES
Type Of Rating Voltage Maximum Conductor cross-
Winding kVA kV current/conducto section
r mm2
A
Cylindrical 5000 - Upto 33 Upto 80 Upto 30
[circular 10000
conductors
]
Cylindrical 5000 -8000 Upto 0.6 10 – 600 5- 200
[rectangula
r
conductors
]
Cross over Upto 1000 Upto 33 Upto 40 Upto 15

Helical Above 160 Upto 33 From 300 and 75 to 100 and

above above
Continuous Above 200 3.3 - 220 12 and above From 4 to 200
 INSULATION DESIGN
• Winding voltages produce an electrostatic field in the
dielectric and therefore stresses the insulation.

• Currents in winding set up magnetic fields which give rise to

magnetic forces on the winding and mechanical stresses on
insulation.

• Losses in transformer causes thermal stressing of

insulation.

• Thus basic consideration in Insulation design:

• Electrical Considerations.
• Mechanical Considerations.
• Thermal Considerations.
 Electrical considerations in insulation
design
• Basic insulation structure is primarily determined from
consideration of voltage which appear between different parts
of transformer.
• Sustained frequency high voltage tests and impulse test are
done to check strength of winding.
• Electrical design should also consider
– Eddy current loss – The winding should be so designed that
stray load losses is small. The radial width of strips should
be small and they should be transposed.
– Leakage reactance – The leakage reactance is adjusted by
changing the winding configuration and brought within
desirable limits.
 Mechanical considerations in insulation
design
• Insulation must be capable of withstanding mechanical stresses
during manufacturing processes.
• Insulation must be able to withstand mechanical stress
developed due to electromagnetic phenomenon.
– Under normal operation these are quite small. But during fault
condition these forces may increase several hundred times.
Insulation must be designed to withstand these forces for a
specified period of time.
• The mechanical design of insulation should be such that hoop,
bursting and compressive stresses are minimized.
Thermal considerations in insulation design

• Determined from consideration of

– Insulating material
– Maximum operating temperature
– Types of cooling methods
• Transformer structure should be such that losses
developed in core and windings such that
temperature rise in various parts does not exceed
permissible limits.
 Insulation of transformers
1. Major insulation 2. Minor insulation

3. Insulation relative to tank and 4. Insulation between phases.

1. Major insulation: the insulation between windings and grounded core and the
insulation between the windings of the same phase.

2. Minor insulation: insulation between different parts of one winding i.e. insulation
between turns, coils and layers etc.

3.Insulation relative to tank: is called oil barrier insulation in oil immersed transformers.
this insulation consists of oil ducts, barriers and coverings. Partition of solid insulation
materials placed inside an oil ducts are called barriers. for example pressboard, s.r.b.p or
cylinders placed between l.v and h.v windings and between windings and core are called
barriers. The barriers and coverings increase the electrical strength of an oil duct.
 The major insulation between the low and high voltage windings is
provided by another pressboard or s.r.b.p cylinder and the bars are
arranged around it.

 Thickness of insulation between a winding earth and between l.v and h.v
windings is :

insulation thickness = 5+0.9KV mm

This thickness includes width of any oil duct provided in between.

thickness of oil duct is 6mm in small capacity transformers and is 7.5 to
12mm in large capacity transformers.
Position of winding related to
the core
Major Insulation Of Transformers

C1, C2, C3  thickness of insulating cylinders.

w  thickness of horizontal solid insulation between winding and yoke
 Thickness of Major Insulation of H.V. winding upto 33 kV
From Winding end to
Rating Volatge Between h.v. and l.v. yoke Between phases
(kVA) (kV) a2 (mm) C2 (mm) h (mm) w (mm) a3 (mm) C3 (mm)

25-100 8.5 2.5 20 10 2

125-630 3.3 and 6.6 12 2.5 20 to 30 - 10 2
800 and 17 5 30-50 10 2
above

25-630 12 3 30 - 14 2
800 and 11 17 5 30 to 50 14 2
above

25-630 15 3.5 40 - 17 2
800 and 15 17 5 40-50 17 2
above

10-800 27 5 60 2 30 3
1000 and 33 27 5 75 2 30 3
above
 Thickness of Major Insulation of L.V. winding upto 33 kV

Rating Volatge From Winding to core

(kVA) (kV) a1 (mm) C1 (mm)
25-630 upto 1 5 -
25-630 3.3 and 6.6 12 2.5
800 and above upto 1, 3.3 and 6.6 15 5
25-630 18 3
800 and above 11 18 5
25-630 21 4
800 and above 15 23 5
Any kvA 33 27 5
 Protection against surges

• Surge overvoltages due to switching, faults

lightning discharges
• Steep wavefront with a rate of rise 1000 times
greater than normal frequency.
• Impose rapidly changing electric stresses in
transformer windings.
• Effect can be considered as a rectangular wave
• Voltage distribution becomes nonuniform with most
of the voltage drop across a fraction of of end of
winding
182
 Protection against surges

• Reinforced insulation of 5% of windings

• Surge absorbers connected between
transmission line and transformer and
transmission line.
• Shielded windings
• Centre point disc winding
• Interleaved winding
• Layer type winding 183
 Transformer Design

Window Space Factor

 Window Space Factor
• Defined as ratio of copper area in the window to the
total window area.
• Estimate value of Window space factor(Kw) can be
found using the following empirical formulae:
– Kw = 8/(30+kV) transformers of rating about 20kVA
– Kw = 10/(30+kV) transformers of rating 50 to
200kVA
– Kw = 12/(30+kV) transformers of rating about
1000kVA
Here kV is h.v. winding voltage in kilo-volts.
• Value of Kw can be increased or decreased during later
stages of design to decrease or increase window area.
 Window space
factor decreases when the voltage rating of
transformer increase

For a given power, high voltage transformer

requires more insulation in window from phase to
phase and phase to core.

Amount of insulation in window increases and net

copper area will decrease, hence window space
factor decreases.
 Window Dimensions
• Leakage reactance is affected by distance between adjacent limbs.
• Width and height of winding are interrelated, if one is decreased
other has to increase.
– Short and wide coils give rise to high leakage reactance.
– Long and thin winding gives low leakage reactance.
• Height and width of window can be adjusted to give suitable
arrangement of winding and desired leakage reactance.
• The ratio of height to width of window is between 2 to 4.
• Area of window Aw =
= 2apTp/Kw for single phase
transformer
= 4apTp/Kw for three phase
transformer
• Area of window Aw = height of window * width of window
= Hw * Ww
 Design Of Yoke
• Area of yoke (A Y) is taken as 15 to 25% larger than core of
transformers using hot rolled silicon steel.
– This reduces the flux density and thus iron losses and magnetizing
current decreases.
• For transformers using cold rolled grain oriented steel area
of yoke is same as area of core.
• Yoke can be taken either rectangular or stepped.
– In case of rectangular yoke depth of yoke is same as depth of core.
– For stepped core depth of yoke is equal to width of largest
stamping.
• For rectangular section yokes
– AY = DY * HY
D Y  Depth of yoke
H Y  Height of yoke
189
190
191
192
 Single phase core type transformer

• D = d + Ww
• DY = a
• H = Hw + 2HY
• W=D+a
 Single phase shell type transformer

• DY = b
• HY = a
• H = Hw + 2a
• W = 2Ww + 4a
 Three phase core type transformer

• D = d + Ww
• DY = a
• H = Hw + 2HY
• W = 2D + a
Overall Dimensions
Single phase Core Type
Hy

Hw H

Hy

Dy

196
d Ww d

D
Overall Dimensions
Single phase Shell Type
a

2a Hw

Ww

Depth
b Over
winding

197
 Overall Dimensions
Thee phase Core Type
Hy Hy
a

Hw H Hw H

Hy Hy

a
W

Dy Dy

d Ww d Ww d

D D

198
 OPERATING
CHARACTERISTICS
 Estimation of No-load Current
No-load Current of Transformer:
Magnetizing Component
Depends on MMF required to establish required flux
Loss Component
Depends on iron loss

200
 No load Current in transformer design:

 The no-load current Io is the vectorial sum of the

magnetizing current Im and core loss or working
component current IL.
 Function of Im is to produce flux φm in the magnetic circuit
and the function of IL is to satisfy the no load losses of the
transformer.

 Its Value is given by:

|Io| = ( |Im|2 + |IL|2 )1/2
No load power factor V1=-E1
Io
Ic
Coso  Ic Ф0

Io

Im

The no load current should not exceed 5% E2

of the full the load current. No load phasor diagram
 Estimation of No-load Current
No-load current of Single phase Transformer
ly
Total Length of the core = 2lc
lC
Total Length of the yoke = 2ly lC

Here, lc=Hw=Height of Window

ly

ly= Ww=Width of Window

MMF for core=MMF per metre for max. flux density in core X Total length of
Core
= atc X 2lc= 2 atc lc
MMF for yoke=MMF per metre for max. flux density in yoke X Total length of
yoke
= aty X 2ly= 2 aty ly
Total Magnetizing MMF,AT0=MMF for Core+MMF for Yoke+MMF for joints 203

= 2 atc lc +2 aty ly +MMF for joints

The values of atc & aty are taken from B-H curve of transformer steel.
• The value of the atc and aty are taken from the B-H curves
for transformer steel.
• The joints in the magnetic circuit may be taken as short air
gaps in parallel with iron paths.
 Estimation of No-load Current
No-load current of Single phase Transformer

Max. value of magnetizing current=AT0/Tp

If the magnetizing current is sinusoidal then,
RMS value of magnetising current, Im=AT0/√2Tp
If the magnetizing current is not sinusoidal,
RMS value of magnetising current, Im=AT0/KpkTp
The loss component of no-load current, Il=Pi/Vp
Where, Pi – Iron loss in Watts
Vp – Primary terminal voltage
Iron losses are calculated by finding the weight of cores and
yokes. Loss per kg is given by the manufacturer. 205

No-load current,
I0  I 2m  Il2
• Now to calculate the loss component. First calculate
2 the
iron losses with the use of loss per weight vs flux density
curve.
• IL = Pi/Vp
Calculation of no load current of Three Phase
transformer:

 Total Magnetizing mmf, Ato = 3atclc + 2atyly + mmf

required for joints.
 Total Magnetizing mmf per phase = (3atclc + 2atyly +
mmf required for joints)/3.

In the above formula:

• atc, aty are the mmf/metre for flux densities in core and
yoke respectively.
• ly, lc are the lengths of the flux path through yoke and core
resp.
Leakage Reactance of
Transformer Windings
1
• In order to compute the leakage reactances
analytically, some approximation is required to
achieve a closed-loop solution.
 The assumptions
In order to compute the leakage reactances
analytically, some approximation is required to
achieve a closed-loop solution.
• 1. The leakage flux distribution in the winding
and the space between the windings must be in
the direction of the winding axial.
• 2. The leakage flux is uniformly distributed along
the length of the windings.
• 3. The leakage flux in the space of two windings
is divided equally between them.
• If it is assumed Lmt1=Lmt2 (it means the
length of each turn of HV and LV windings are
equal)
• The electromagnetic energy stored in
the windings and the space between
them can be used to calculate the
inductance between the windings and
the leakage inductance.
• The previous assumptions are
considered here in order to obtain a
closed-form solution. Consider the path
F1 in Fig. 1, mmf for the path having
distance x from the beginning of LV
winding is
 TEMPERATURE RISE OF
TRANSFORMERS
• The problem of temperature rise and cooling
of transformers is essentially the same as
that of rotating machines.
• The losses developed in the transformer
cores and windings during conversation are
converted into thermal energy and cause
heating of corresponding transformer parts.
 Cooling of transformers
Losses in transformer-Converted in heat energy.
Heat developed is transmitted by,
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
The paths of heat flow are,
From internal hot spot to the outer surface(in contact with oil)
From outer surface to the oil
From the oil to the tank
From tank to the cooling medium-Air or water.
 Cooling of transformers
Transformer Oil as Cooling Medium

 Specific heat dissipation due to convection is,

1
  4
conv  40.3  W / m 2 .0 C
H
where,  - Temperatur e difference of the surface relative to oil, 0C
H  Height of dissipatin g surface, m
 The average working temperature of oil is 50-600C.
 For   200C & H  0.5 to 1m,
conv  80 to 100 W/m 2 .0 C.
 The value of the dissipation in air is 8 W/m2/0C. i.e, 10 times less than oil.
 Cooling of transformers
Temperature rise in plain walled tanks

 Transformer wall dissipates heat in radiation & convection.

 For a temperature rise of 400C above the ambient temperature of 200C, the heat
dissipations are as follows:
 Specific heat dissipation by radiation,rad=6 W/m2.0C
 Specific heat dissipation by convection, conv=6.5 W/m2/0C
 Total heat dissipation in plain wall 12.5 W/m2.0C
 The temperature rise,
Total losses P  Pc
  i
Specific heat  Heat dissipatin g  12.5 St
   
 Dissipatio n   surface of tank 
St – Heat dissipating surface
 Heat dissipating surface of tank : Total area of vertical sides+ One half area of top
cover(Air cooled) (Full area of top cover for oil cooled)
Design of tanks with cooling tubes
 Cooling tubes increases the heat dissipation
 Cooling by tubes mounted on vertical sides of the transformer not
proportional to increase in area. Because, the tubes prevents the
radiation from the tank in screened surfaces.
 But the cooling tubes increase circulation of oil and hence improve
the convection
 Circulation is due to effective pressure heads
 Dissipation by convection is equal to that of 35% of tube surface
area. i.e., 35% tube area is added to actual tube area.
 Design of tanks with cooling tubes
Let, Dissipating surface of tank – St
Dissipating surface of tubes – XSt
Loss dissipated by surface of the tank by radiation and convection =
6  6.5St  12.5St
Loss dissipated by  135
  6.5   XS t  8.8XS t
tubes by convection 100

Total loss dissipated 

  12.5St  8.8XS t  12.5  8.8X St  (1)
by walls and tubes 
Actual total area of tank wall s and tubes  St  XSt  St (1  X )
Design of tanks with cooling tubes

Total losses dissipated

Loss dissipated per m 2 of dissipatin g surface 
Total area
St (12.5  8.8 X ) (12.5  8.8 X )
Loss dissipated per m of dissipatin g surface 
2
  (2)
St (1  X ) (1  X )

Temperatur e rise in  Total loss

 
Transforme r with cooling tubes  Loss Dissipated
Total losses, Ploss  Pi  Pc  (3)
Pi  Pc
From (1) and (3), we have,  
S t (12.5  8.8 X )
Pi  Pc
(12.5  8.8 X ) 
 St
P  Pc 1  Pi  Pc 
8.8 X  i  12.5  X   12.5 
 St 8.8   St 
 Design of tanks with cooling tubes
1  Pi  Pc  1  Pi  Pc 
Total area of cooling tubes  
 
 12.5  St    12.5St   (5)
8.8   St  8.8   
Let , lt  Length of tubes
d t  Diameter of tubes
 Surface area of tubes   d t lt
Total area of tubes
Total number of tubes, nt 
Area of each tube
1  Pi  Pc 
nt    12.5St   (6)
8.8 d t lt   
 Standard diameter of cooling tube is 50mm & length depends on the
height of the tank.
 Centre to centre spacing is 75mm.
 C4

HT

D D
C3

WT

LT

Doc C1
C2
 Design of tanks with cooling tubes
 Dimensions of the tank:
Let, C1 – Clearance b/w winding and tank along width
C2 - Clearance b/w winding and tank along length
C3 – Clearance b/w the transformer frame and tank at the bottom
C4 - Clearance b/w the transformer frame and tank at the top
Doc – Outer diameter of the coil.
Width of the tank, WT=2D+ Doc +2 C1 (For 3 Transformer)
= D+ Doc +2 C1 (For 1 Transformer)
Length of the tank, LT= Doc +2 C2
Height of the tank, HT=H+C3+ C4
Design of tanks with cooling tubes
 Clearance on the sides depends on the voltage &
power ratings.
 Clearance at the top depends on the oil height above
the assembled transformer & space for mounting the
terminals and tap changer.
 Clearance at the bottom depends on the space
required for mounting the frame.
 Design of tanks with cooling tubes
Clearance in mm
Voltage kVA Rating
C1 C2 C3 C4

Up to 11kV <1000kVA 40 50 75 375

Upto 11 kV 1000-5000kVA 70 90 100 400

11kV – 33kV <1000kVA 75 100 75 450

11kV – 33kV 1000-5000kVA 85 125 100 475

Hence
xSt
No of cooling tubes 
At

7.5 Cm

d= 5 Cm

Tank and Arrangement of Cooling tubes

226