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Chapter 06
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Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Chapter 6-Skeletal System
Functions
1. Support
2. Protect
3. Movement
4. Storage
5. Blood cell production
3
Components of Skeletal System
• Bone
• Cartilage:
reduce friction and model for bone formation
• Tendons:
attach bone to muscle
• Ligaments:
attach bone to bone 4
Background Information
• Bones, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments are
connective tissues.
• Proteoglycans:
- large polysaccharides attached to proteins
- part of ground substance
- store water
5
• Bone’s extracellular matrix is collagen and
minerals (flexible and able to bear weight)
• Cartilage’s extracellular matrix is collagen and

proteoglycans (good shock absorber)
• Tendons and ligaments’ extracellular matrix is

collagen (very tough)
6
Classification of Bones
• Based on shape:
long, short, flat, irregular
• Type of bone tissue:

compact and spongy (cancellous)
7
Long Bone Structures
• Diaphysis:
– shaft Articular cartilage

Epiphysis
– compact bone Epiphyseal plates

in juveniles
tissue (on outside)

• Epiphysis: Spongy bone
– ends
Compact bone
Medullary cavity (contains
– spongy bone tissue

Diaphysis red marrow in juveniles and
yellow marrow in adults)
• Articular cartilage: Periosteum
Endosteum
- covers epiphyses Young bone
- reduces friction (a)
8
• Epiphyseal plate:
– site of growth
Articular cartilage
Epiphysis
– between diaphysis
and epiphysis Epiphyseal lines
in adults
Spongy bone
Compact bone
• Medullary cavity: Medullary cavity (contains

red marrow in juveniles and
Diaphysis
– center of diaphysis Periosteum
Endosteum
– red or yellow
marrow (b)
Adult bone

• Periosteum:
Articular cartilage
Epiphysis
membrane around Epiphyseal plates

in juveniles
bone’s outer surface

Spongy bone
Compact bone
• Endosteum: Medullary cavity (contains

Diaphysis red marrow in juveniles and
membrane that lines yellow marrow in adults)
Periosteum
medullary cavity Endosteum
Young bone
(a)
10
Articular cartilage
Epiphysis
Epiphyseal plates
in juveniles
Epiphyseal lines
in adults
Spongy bone
Compact bone
Medullary cavity (contains

Diaphysis red marrow in juveniles and Diaphysis
Periosteum
Endosteum
Young bone
Adult bone
(a) (b)
Osteons
(haversian systems)
Endosteum
Inner
layer
Periosteum
Outer
layer
Compact bone
Central canals
Spongy bone
with trabeculae
Connecting vessels
Medullary
cavity 11
Adult bone
(c) Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Compact Bone Tissue
• Location:
outer part of diaphysis (long Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.
bones) and thinner surfaces

Osteons
of other bones (haversian systems)
Endosteum
Inner
• Osteon:
layer
Periosteum
Outer
- structural unit of compact layer
Compact bone
bone Central canals

Spongy bone
- includes lamella, lacunae, with trabeculae
canaliculus, central canal, Connecting vessels
Medullary
osteocytes cavity
Adult bone
(c)
• Lamella:
rings of bone matrix 12
• Lacunae:
spaces between lamella
• Canaliculus:
Osteons
- tiny canals (haversian systems)
Endosteum
Inner
- transport nutrients and Periosteum

layer
Outer
remove waste Compact bone

layer
Central canals
Spongy bone
• Central canal:
with trabeculae
Connecting vessels
- center of osteon Medullary

cavity
Adult bone
- contains blood vessels (c)
13
Osteon Osteon Lamellae on

Concentric rings surface of bone
of lamellae Lamellae
between osteons
Central canal
Periosteum
Blood vessel within
the periosteum
Blood vessels
connecting to
a central canal
Blood vessels
within a central
(Haversian) canal
Canaliculi
LM 400x Osteocytes in
lacunae
Canaliculi (b)
(a)
Blood vessel
Lacunae
connecting to
a central canal
between osteons
a: © Trent Stephens

Spongy Bone Tissue
• Cancellous bone
• Location: epiphyses of long bones and center of other bones
• Trabeculae: interconnecting rods, spaces contain marrow
• No osteons
15
Bone Cells
• Osteocytes:
maintain bone matrix
• Osteoblasts:
build bone
• Osteoclasts:
carve bone
16
Bone Formation
• Ossification:
process of bone formation (occurs in utero)
• Osteoblast’s role:
- build bone
- after an osteoblast becomes surrounded by bone
matrix it becomes an osteocyte
17
• Ossification center:
where bone formation begins
• Primary ossification center:

- where bone 1st begins to appear
- forms diaphyses
• Secondary ossification center:

forms epiphyses
18
Intramembranous Ossification
• Bone formation within connective tissue
membranes
• Osteoblasts build bone
• Ex. Skull bones
19
Endochondral Ossification
• Bone formation inside cartilage
• Cartilage models are replaced by bone
• Ex. All bones (except skull)
21
Steps in Endochondral Ossification
1. Chondroblasts build a cartilage model, the
chrondroblasts become chondrocytes.
2. Cartilage model calcifies (hardens).
3. Osteoblasts invade calcified cartilage and a
primary ossification center forms diaphysis.
4. Secondary ossification centers form epiphysis.
5. Original cartilage model is almost completely
ossified and remaining cartilage is articular
cartilage.
22
Femur
Patella
Epiphysis
Epiphyseal
plate
Diaphysis
(a)
Length of bone
increases.
Epiphyseal side
1 New cartilage is
Thickness of produced on
1 epiphyseal the epiphyseal side
plate remains of the plate as the
Chondrocytes 1
unchanged. chondrocytes divide
Epiphyseal divide and enlarge.
and form stacks
plate of cells.
2 2 Chondrocytes
mature and 2
Bone is
3 added to enlarge.
Calcified cartilage diaphysis. 3 Matrix is calcified,
is replaced by bone. and chondrocytes
die. 3
Bone of
4 The cartilage on
diaphysis
4 the diaphyseal side 4
of the plate is LM 400x
(b) replaced by bone.
Diaphyseal side
(c)
(a): © Ed Reschke/Peter Arnold, Inc./ Photolibrary.com; (c): © Bio-Photo Assocs/Photo Researchers, Inc.
24
Bone Growth
• Infancy and youth:
- long bones lengthen at epiphyseal plate
- long bones widen by adding more lamella
• End of bone growth (in length):

epiphyseal plate is replaced by an epiphyseal line
25
Figure
6.2b
Bone Remodeling
• What is it?
- removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and
deposition of new bone by osteoblasts
- occurs in all bones
- responsible for changes in bone shape, bone
repair, adjustment of bone to stress, and
calcium ion regulation
27
Bone Repair
1. Broken bone causes bleeding and a blood clot
forms.
2. Callus forms which is a fibrous network between
2 fragments.
3. Cartilage model forms first then, osteoblasts enter
the callus and form cancellous bone this
continues for 4-6 weeks after injury.
4. Cancellous bone is slowly remodeled to form
compact and cancellous bone.
28
Bone and Calcium Homeostasis
• Bone is a major storage site for calcium
• Movement of calcium in and out of bone helps
determine blood levels of calcium
• Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts build
new bone
• Calcium move out of bone as osteoclasts break
down bone
• Calcium homeostasis is maintained by
parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin
30
Decreased
1 5
Increased Please update to
blood Ca2+ blood Ca2+
9e copyright
Posterior aspect
of thyroid gland
Parathyroid 1 Decreased blood Ca2+ stimulates PTH
glands secretion from parathyroid glands.
Kidney
Thyroid gland 2 PTH stimulates osteoclasts to break down
bone and release Ca2+ into the blood.
3 In the kidneys, PTH increases Ca2+

reabsorption from the urine. PTH also
3 stimulates active Vitamin D formation.
PTH Calcitonin 4 Vitamin D promotes Ca2+ absorption from
the small intestine into the blood.
2 6
Stimulates 5 Increased blood Ca2+ stimulates calcitonin
Vitamin D Inhibits
secretion from the thyroid gland.
osteoclasts osteoclasts
6 Calcitonin inhibits osteoclasts, which
Bone allows for enhanced osteoblast uptake of
Osteoclasts Ca2+ from the blood to deposit into bone.
promote Ca2+
uptake from Ca2+
4 bone.
Osteoblasts promote
Ca2+ deposition in bone.
Small intestine
Ca2+ Blood

Hematopoietic Tissue
• What is it?
tissue that makes blood cells
• Red marrow:
location of blood forming cells
• Yellow marrow:
mostly fat
32
• Location of hematopoietic tissue in newborns:
most bones (red marrow)
• Location of hematopoietic tissue in adults:

- red is replaced with yellow marrow
- red marrow is mainly in epiphyses of femur
and humerus
33
Bone Anatomy
• Foramen:
- hole
- Ex. Foramen magnum
• Fossa:
- depression
- Ex. Glenoid fossa
• Process:
- projection
- Ex. Mastoid process
34
• Condyle:
- smooth, rounded end
- Ex. Occipital condyle
• Meatus:
- canal-like passageway
- Ex. External auditory meatus
• Tubercle:
- lump of bone
- Ex. Greater tubercle
35
36
Axial Skeleton
• Mastoid process:
attached to neck muscles
• External auditory meatus:

ear canal
• Nasolacrimal canal:
- canal between nasal cavity and eye
- conducts tears
37
• Styloid process:
attachment site for tongue
• Mandibular fossa:
depression where lower jaw and skull
meet
• Glenoid fossa:
where humerus meets scapula
38
• Hard palate:
roof of mouth
• Foramen magnum:
hole where spinal cord joins brainstem
39
• Zygomatic:
cheek bone
• Mandible:
lower jaw
• Maxilla:
upper jaw
40
44
Vertebral Column
• 7 cervical vertebra
• 12 thoracic vertebra
• 5 lumbar vertebra
• 1 sacrum
• 1 coccyx
• Atlas:
- 1st vertebra
- holds head
• Axis:
- 2nd vertebra
- rotates head
45
Functions of Vertebral Column
• Support
• Protect spinal cord
• Movement
49
Thoracic Cage
• Protects vital organs
• 12 pair of ribs
• Sternum:
breastbone
• True ribs:
attach directly to sternum by cartilage
• False ribs:
attach indirectly to sternum by cartilage
• Floating ribs:
not attached to sternum
50
Pectoral Girdle
• Scapula:
shoulder blade
• Clavicle:
collar bone
52
Upper Limb Bones
• Humerus:
upper limb
• Ulna:
forearm
• Radius:
forearm
• Carpals:
wrist
• Metacarpals:
hand
54
Pelvic Girdle
• Where lower limbs attach to body
• Pelvis:
includes pelvic girdle and coccyx
• Ischium:
inferior and posterior region
• Ilium:
most superior region
• Acetabulum:
hip socket (joint) 59
63
Lower Limb Bones
• Femur:
thigh
• Patella:
knee cap
• Tibia:
large lower leg
• Fibula:
small lower leg
64
• Tarsals:
ankle
• Metatarsals:
foot
• Phalanges:
toes and fingers
65
67
70
Articulations
• What are they?
where 2 bones come together (joint)
• Synarthrosis:
- nonmovable joint
- Ex. skull
• Amphiarthrosis:
- slightly movable joint
- Ex. Between vertebrae
• Diarthrosis:
- freely movable joint
- Ex. knee, elbow, wrist 71
72
73
74
Types of Movement
• Flexion: bending
• Extension: straightening
• Abduction: movement away from midline
• Adduction: movement toward the midline
• Pronation: rotation of the forearm with palms
down
• Supination: rotation of the forearm with palms up
• Rotation: movement of a structure about the long
axis
75
Effects of Aging on the Skeletal
System and Joints
1. Decreased Collagen Production
2. Loss of Bone Density
3. Degenerative Changes
78

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Chapter 06

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1

• Cartilage’s extracellular matrix is collagen and

• Tendons and ligaments’ extracellular matrix is

• Type of bone tissue:

– shaft Articular cartilage

– compact bone Epiphyseal plates

tissue (on outside)

Medullary cavity (contains

– spongy bone tissue

• Articular cartilage: Periosteum

- covers epiphyses Young bone

- reduces friction (a)

• Medullary cavity: Medullary cavity (contains

– center of diaphysis Periosteum

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

membrane around Epiphyseal plates

bone’s outer surface

• Endosteum: Medullary cavity (contains

membrane that lines yellow marrow in adults)

Medullary cavity (contains

bones) and thinner surfaces

of other bones (haversian systems)

- structural unit of compact layer

bone Central canals

- includes lamella, lacunae, with trabeculae

canaliculus, central canal, Connecting vessels

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

- tiny canals (haversian systems)

- transport nutrients and Periosteum

remove waste Compact bone

- center of osteon Medullary

- contains blood vessels (c)

Osteon Osteon Lamellae on

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Primary ossification center:

• Secondary ossification center:

• Osteoblasts build bone

• Ex. Skull bones

• Cartilage models are replaced by bone

• Ex. All bones (except skull)

• End of bone growth (in length):

3 In the kidneys, PTH increases Ca2+

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Location of hematopoietic tissue in adults:

• External auditory meatus:

• Protect spinal cord

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