a tour of new possibilities in life

introducing

INDUSTRIAL
ELECTRONICS
POWER ELECTRONICS
 Power Electronics
• To convert, i.e to process and control the flow
of electric power by supplying voltages and
currents in a form that is optimally suited for
user loads.
• is the application of solid-state electronics to
the control and conversion of electric power.
Power Electronics System

• Control is invariably required.

• Power converter along with its controller including the
corresponding measurement and interface circuits, is also called
power electronic system
 TYPICAL POWER SOURCES AND LOADS FOR
A POWER ELECTRONIC SYSTEM

Power input Power output

Source Power Load
Vi ii Converter io Vo
-Electric utility Feedback/ -Electric Motor
-battery Feed forward -light
-other electric energy
source Controller -heating
Reference -power converter
-power converter -other electric or
electronic equipment

• The task of power electronics has been recently extended to

also ensuring the currents and power consumed by power
converters and loads to meet the requirement of electric
energy sources.
 POWER ELECTRONICS (CONVERSION
OF ELECTRIC POWER)
Electric
Power Power Power
input output
Converter CONVERTERS - serve as an
interface between the source
Control and load.
input

Changeable properties in
Two types of electric power
conversion

DC(Direct Current) Magnitude

Frequency, magnitude,
AC (Alternating Current)
number of phases
 POWER ELECTRONICS (CLASSIFICATION
OF POWER CONVERTERS)
Power
output DC AC
Power
input
AC to AC converter
AC AC to DC converter (Fixed frequency : AC controller
(Rectifier) Variable frequency: Cycloconverter or
frequency converter)

DC DC to DC converter DC to AC converter
(Chopper) (Inverter)
 POWER ELECTRONICS (CLASSIFICATION OF
POWER CONVERTERS)
• Some converter circuits can operate in different modes,
depending on circuit and control parameters.
• For example, some rectifier circuits can be operated as inverters
by modifying the control on the semiconductor devices. In such
cases, it is the direction of average power flow that determines
the converter classification.
 POWER ELECTRONICS RELATION WITH
MULTIPLE DISCIPLINES
Systems & Signal
Control theory processing
Circuit
Simulation &
theory
computing

Electric Power
machines Electronics
electronics

Power Solid state

systems physics
Electromagnetics

• Power electronics is currently the most active discipline in

electric power engineering worldwide.
 POWER ELECTRONICS RELATION WITH
INFORMATION ELECTRONICS
A Classification of electronics by processing object

Information electronics: to process information

Electronics
Power electronics: to process electric power

Other classifications of electronics

Vacuum electronics: using vacuum devices,
e.g, vacuum tubes devices
Electronics
Solid state electronics: using solid state devices,
e.g, semiconductor devices

Physical electronics: physics, material, fabrication,

and manufacturing of electronic
Electronics devices
Applied electronics: application of electronic devices to
various areas
 POSITION AND SIGNIFICANCE IN
THE HUMAN SOCIETY
• Electric power is used in almost every aspect and
everywhere of modern human society.
• Electric power is the major form of energy source used
in modern human society.
• The objective of power electronics is exactly about how
to use electric power, and how to use it effectively and
efficiently, and how to improve the quality and
utilization of electric power.
• Power electronics and information electronics make two
poles of modern technology and human society——
information electronics is the brain and power
electronics is the muscle.
 POWER ELECTRONICS:
APPLICATIONS
• Industrial
• Transportation
• Utility systems
• Power supplies for all kinds of electronic
equipment
• Residential and home appliances
• Space technology
 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS

• Motor drives
• Electrolysis
• Electroplating
• Induction heating
• Welding
• Arc furnaces and ovens
• Lighting
 TRANSPORTATION APPLICATIONS

• Trains & locomotives

• Subways
• Trolley buses
• Magnetic levitation
• Electric vehicles
• Automotive electronics
• Ship power systems
• Aircraft power systems
 UTILITY SYSTEMS APPLICATIONS

• High-voltage dc
transmission(HVDC)
• Custom power & power quality
control
• Supplemental energy sources :
- wind, photovoltaic,
fuel cells
• Energy storage systems
 POWER SUPPLIES FOR ELECTRONIC
EQUIPMENT

• Telecommunications
• Computers
• Office equipment
computer
• Electronic instruments server

• Portable or mobile
electronics

Telecommunication
 RESIDENTIAL AND HOME APPLIANCES

• Lighting
• Heating
• Air conditioning
• Refrigeration & freezers
• Cooking
• Cleaning
• Entertaining
 APPLICATIONS IN SPACE TECHNOLOGY

• Spaceship power systems

• Satellite power systems
• Space vehicle power systems
 OTHER APPLICATIONS

• Nuclear reactor
control
• Power systems for
particle accelerators
• Environmental
engineering
 Power Computations
• Power computations are essential in analyzing and designing
power electronics circuits.
Instantaneous Power
• The instantaneous power for any device is computed from
the voltage across it and the current in it.
 Instantaneous power is generally a time-varying quantity.
Instantaneous power is:
Passive Sign Convention
• The device is absorbing power if
p(t) is positive at a specified
value of time t.
• The device is supplying power if
p(t) is negative.
 Power Computations
Energy
• Energy, or work, is the integral of instantaneous power.
Observing the passive sign convention, energy absorbed by
a component in the time interval from t1 to t2 is

• If v(t) is in volts and i(t) is in amperes, power has units of

watts and energy has units of joules.
 Power Computations
Average Power
• Average power is the time average of p(t) over one or
more periods. Average power P is computed from

• where T is the period of the power waveform.

• Power is also computed from energy per period.
 Power Computations
• A special case that is frequently encountered in power
electronics is the power absorbed or supplied by a dc source.
Applications include battery-charging circuits and dc power
supplies. The average power absorbed by a dc voltage source
v(t). Vdc that has a periodic current i(t) is derived from the basic
definition of average power

• Bringing the constant Vdc outside of the integral gives

 Power Computations
• EFFECTIVE VALUES: RMS
• The effective value of a voltage or current is also known as the
root-mean-square (rms) value. The effective value of a periodic
voltage waveform is based on the average power delivered to a
resistor. For a dc voltage across a resistor,
Computing average resistor power

Equating the expressions for power:

 Power Computations Example
• Voltage and current, consistent with the passive sign
convention, for a device are shown in Fig. 2-2a and b. (a)
Determine the instantaneous power p(t) absorbed by the
device.(b) Determine the energy absorbed by the device in
one period. (c) Determine the average power absorbed by
the device.
 Power Computations Example

Solution:
• a.)
 Power Computations Example
Solution:
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
 INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES
• In an industrial system, the control circuits
constantly receive and process information about
the conditions in the system.
• An electrical control circuit for controlling an
industrial system can be broken down into three
distinct sections:
a. input section
b. logic section
c. output section
• INPUT SECTION – sometimes called the
information-gathering section, consists of all the
devices which supply system information and
human operator settings to the circuits.
• Some of the common input devices are:
 push-buttons,
mechanical limit switches,
pressure switches, and
photocells.
• LOGIC SECTION – sometimes called the decision-
making section, is that part of the circuit which
acts upon the information provided by the input
section.
• It makes decision based on the information
received and sends orders to the output section.
• The logic section’s circuits are usually built with:
 magnetic relays,
discrete transistor circuits or
 integrated transistor circuits
• OUTPUT SECTION – sometimes called the actuating
device section, consists of the devices which take
the output signals from the logic section and convert
or amplify these signals into useful form.
• The most common actuating devices are:
Motor starters and contactors,
Solenoid coils, and
Indicating lamps
TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
 TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH

• TRANSISTOR – is a three-layer semiconductor device

consisting of either two n-and one p-type layers of
material called the npn transistor or two p- and one
n-type layers of material called the pnp transistor.
 BJT Transistors:

NPN
Transistor Sandwiching a
P-type layer
between two n-
type layers.

PNP
Transistor Sandwiching a
N-type layer
between two p-
type layers.
 Transistors have three terminals:
Collector

Base

Emitter

Active: Always on
Ic=BIb

Transistors work in 3 regions Saturation :Ic=Isaturation

On as a switch

Cut-Off :Ic=0
Off as a switch
 • Transistors can be used as switches.1

Transistor Switch
• Transistors can either conduct or not conduct current.

• ie, transistors can either be on or off.

 TRANSISTOR SWITCH

• TRANSISTOR OPERATION (BJT):

a. active – acts as an amplifier
b. saturation – acts as a switch
c. cut-off – acts as a switch
 TRANSISTOR as a Switch

 Solid state switches are one of the main applications for

the use of transistor to switch a DC output “ON” or “OFF”.
 Some output devices, such as LED’s only require a few
milliamps at logic level DC voltages and can therefore be
driven directly by the output of a logic gate.
 However, high power devices such as motors, solenoids or
lamps, often require more power than that supplied by an
ordinary logic gate so transistor switches are used.
 TRANSISTOR as a Switch

The areas of operation for a transistor switch are known

as the Saturation Region and the Cut-off Region, by
driving it back and forth between its “fully-OFF” (cut-off)
and “fully-ON” (saturation).
 INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES:
TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
• Solid state switches are one of the
main applications for the use of
transistor to switch a DC output “ON”
or “OFF”.
• The areas of operation for a transistor
switch are known as the Saturation
Region and the Cut-off Region. This
means then that we can ignore the
operating Q-point biasing and voltage
divider circuitry required for
amplification, and use the transistor as
a switch by driving it back and forth
between its “fully-OFF” (cut-off) and
“fully-ON” (saturation) regions as
shown below.
 Example
 Using the transistor values of: β = 200, Ic = 4mA and Ib
= 20uA, find the value of the Base resistor (Rb)
required to switch the load fully “ON” when the input
terminal voltage exceeds 2.5v.
 Transistor Switching Example

X
12V

Variable
Voltage
Supply

• When VBE is less than 0.7V the transistor is off

and the lamp does not light.

• When VBE is greater than 0.7V the transistor is on

and the lamp lights.
Transistor Circuit : Light-Controlled Circuit
 PROBLEM
 Using the transistor values of: β = 200, find the minimum Base
current required to turn the transistor “fully-ON” (saturated) for
a load that requires 200mA of current when the input voltage is
increased to 5.0V. Also calculate the new value of Rb.
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES: RELAY
 INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES: RELAY
• A Relay comprises of an electromagnet and a contact
unit. The definition is: Activating the contact unit using
electromagnetic attraction, which is produced when
electric current exceeding the specified value flows to
the electromagnet; the voltage and current (input signal)
applied to the coil opens or shuts the contact.
• Relays are electromechanical devices that use an
electromagnet to operate a pair of movable contacts
from an open position to a closed position or vice versa.
• It is used in application to turn on and off a circuit by a
low power signal, or where several circuits must be
controlled by one signal.
 INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES: RELAY

Main Parts in a RELAY

• Electromagnet
• Movable Armature
• Switch point contacts
• Spring
When the control
switch is turned ON
Current starts flowing
through a coil,
it generates magnetic
field that attracts
the armature and the
load circuit is closed.
NORMALLY OPEN NORMALLY CLOSED
 INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES: RELAY
• Relay can be used to control several circuits by one
signal.
• Relay switches may have one or more poles, each of
whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil.
There are different types of relays:
a. SPST – Single Pole Single Throw
b. SPDT – Single Pole Double Throw
c. DPST – Double Pole Single Throw
d. DPDT – Double Pole Double Throw
• SPST – Single Pole Single Throw. It has two
terminals which can be connected or
disconnected. Including two coil, such a relay
has four terminals in total.
• SPDT – Single Pole Double Throw. A common
terminal connects to either of two others.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has five
terminals in total.
• DPST – Double Pole Single Throw. These have
two pairs of terminals. Equivalent to two SPST
switches or relays actuated by a single coil.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has six
terminals in total.
• DPDT – Double Pole Double Throw. These
have two rows of change-over terminals.
Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays
actuated by a single coil. Including two for the
coil, such a relay has eight terminals in total.
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES: RELAY
(Classification of Relays)
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES: RELAY (Applications of Relays)
POWER SUPPLY
 Introduction
• Most of the electronic devices and circuits require a dc source
for their operation.
• Dry cells and batteries are one form of dc source.
• They have the advantage of being portable and ripple-free.
• However, their voltages are low, they need frequent
replacement and are expensive as compared to conventional dc
power supplies.
• Since the most convenient and economical source of power is
the domestic ac supply, it is advantageous to convert this
alternating voltage (usually, 220 V rms) to dc voltage (usually
smaller in value)
Unregulated Power Supply
 An unregulated power supply is one whose dc
terminal voltage is affected significantly by the
amount of load. As the load draws more
current, the dc terminal voltage becomes less.

Regulated Power Supply

 It is that dc power supply whose terminal voltage
remains almost constant regardless of the amount
of current drawn from it
 Regulated Power Supply

• Transformer – is used to step up or (mostly) step down the ac

supply voltage
• Rectifier - convert ac voltage into pulsating dc voltage
• Filter – remove the fluctuations or pulsations (called ripples)
• Voltage Regulator - keep the terminal voltage of the dc
supply constant
• Voltage Divider - provide different dc-voltages needed by
different electronic circuits.
 Transformer

• A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of

apparatus by means of which electric power in
one circuit is transformed into electric power
of the same frequency in another circuit
 Transformer
• The physical basis of a transformer is mutual induction
between two circuits linked by a common magnetic flux.
• In its simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils which
are electrically separated but magnetically linked through a
path of low reluctance as shown
 Transformer
• If one coil is connected to a source of
alternating voltage, an alternating flux is set
up in the laminated core, most of which is
linked with the other coil in which it produces
mutually-induced e.m.f.
• If the second coil circuit is closed, a current
flows in it and so electric energy is
transferred (entirely magnetically) from the
first coil to the second coil.
Transformer
 In brief, a transformer is a device that

• transfers electric power from one circuit to

another
• it does so without a change of frequency
• it accomplishes this by electromagnetic
induction and
• where the two electric circuits are in
mutual inductive influence of each other
 Ideal Transformer
• The power in the secondary and primary windings are
equal.
• The voltage, in both primary and secondary windings is
directly proportional to the number of turns of the
coil.
• The current, in both primary and secondary windings is
inversely proportional to the number of turns of the
coil.
• The impedance, in both primary and secondary
windings, is directly proportional to the square of the
numbers of turns of the coil.
 Transformer Losses
• Current Loss – the 𝐼2 𝑅 loss in the primary and
secondary windings of the transformer.
• Core Loss or Iron Loss – equals eddy current loss
plus hysteresis loss
• Eddy current loss - the current produced in the iron
core that does not aid transformer output. This is due to
changing magnetic field and the iron core conductivity.
• Hysteresis Loss – since AC current constantly
change in magnitude and direction, the tiny molecular
agents within the core are constantly being arranged and
this process requires energy that causes some loss
 Transformer Efficiency
• The practical transformer does not
meet all the criteria for ideal 100%
efficient device because of energy
losses.
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
ŋ = 𝑥 100%
𝑃𝑖𝑛
Where:
Pout = VLIL(PF)
Pin = Pout + Plosses
Sample Problem
A 2400/240 – volt step-down
transformer has a current of 9 amperes
in its primary and 85 amperes in its
secondary. Determine the total power
loss and efficiency of the transformer.
 Rectifier
• A circuit that is used to convert the ac power
to pulsating dc. There are three basic
rectifier circuits using diodes:

1. Half-wave Rectifier
2. Full-wave, Bridge Type
3. Full-wave, Center-tapped transformer
 Half-Wave Rectifier
• Uses one diode and converts one-half of its
AC input to pulsating DC.
 Half-Wave Rectifier Formulas

O Average Voltage or DC Voltage, VDC

VP VDC  0.45Vrms( source)

VDC   0.318VP

Where: VP = peak voltage
Vrms (source) = input rms (effective) voltage

O Effective Output Voltage or RMS Voltage, VRMS

VP
VRMS   0.5VP
2
 Half-Wave Rectifier Formulas
• Peak-Inverse Voltage, PIV
- Maximum value of reverse voltage
PIV ≥ VP
• Ripple Frequency
frip = fin
• Effective Ripple Voltage, Vr (rms)
Vr ( rms )  VRMS
2
 VDC
2

• Ripple Factor, r
Vr ( rms )
r
VDC
 Full-Wave Rectifier
(Bridge Type)

• The most familiar network for performing

such a function appears below with its four
diodes.
 Full-Wave Rectifier
(Center Tapped Transformer Type)

Note: The transformer used is in 1:2

ratio, thus the peak input and output
voltage is equal.
 Full Wave Rectifier Formulas
• Average Voltage or DC Voltage, VDC

2VP
VDC   0.636VP VDC  0.90Vrms ( source )

• Effective Output Voltage or RMS Voltage, VRMS
VP
VRMS   0.707VP
2

• Peak-Inverse Voltage
PIV > VP for bridge-type (Vo + 0.7)
PIV > 2VP for center-tapped transformer (2Vo+0.7)
 Full Wave Rectifier Formulas

• Ripple Frequency
frip = 2fin
• Effective Ripple Voltage, Vr (rms)
Vr(rms) = 0.308Vp
• Ripple Factor, r
Vr ( rms )
r
VDC
 Sample Problem
A 50 ohms load resistance is connected
across a half-wave rectifier. The input
supply voltage is 230V(rms) at 50Hz.
Determine the DC output voltage, the
effective ripple voltage and the output
ripple frequency.
 Seatwork
1. If the peak ac voltage is 12V, find the ripple
voltage if the rectifier used is (a) half-wave
rectifier and (b) full-wave rectifier.

2. A step-up transformer has a primary-to-

secondary turns ratio of 1:5. If 117Vrms
appears at the primary, what is the ac rms
voltage across the secondary?
FILTER
 Filter
• A circuit that converts a pulsating output
from a rectifier into a very steady dc level
• it filters out or smoothens out the
pulsations in the output
• There are only two basic types capacitance
filter (C Filter) and (RC Filter).
 Capacitance Filter (C Filter)
• It is the simplest and the most
economical filter available.
Capacitance Filter (C Filter)
• Average Voltage or DC Voltage, 𝑉𝐷𝐶
Vr ( p  p ) I DC
VDC  VP   VP 
2 4 f in C
I DC
where Vr (p-p) Vr ( p  p ) 
2 f in C

• Effective Ripple Voltage, Vr(rms)

Vr ( p  p ) I DC VDC
Vr ( rms )   
2 3 4 3 f in C 4 3RL f in C

• Peak Ripple Voltage

Vr ( p  p )
Vr ( peak ) 
2
Sample Problem
1. Calculate the ripple voltage of a full-
wave rectifier with a 100-microfarad
filter capacitor connected to a load
drawing 50mA.
2. If the peak rectified voltage for the
filter circuit of example 1 is 30V,
calculate the filter dc voltage.
 RC Filter
• It is used to further reduce the amount of ripple
voltage across a capacitor filter. Its primary
objective is to pass most dc component while
attenuating or reduce as much of the ac
component as possible.
RC Filter
 DC Operation of RC Filter Section

RL
V ' DC  VDC
R  RL
Where:
𝑉′𝐷𝐶 - voltage across the current capacitor
𝑉𝐷𝐶 - voltage across the previous capacitor
𝑅𝐿 - load resistance
R – resistance in the RC section
 Example
• Calculate the dc voltage across a 1-kilo
Ohm load for an RC filter section
(R=120 Ohm ,C = 10micro Farad). The
dc voltage across the initial filter
capacitor is Vdc=60 V.
 AC Operation of RC Filter Section

• Due to the voltage divider action of the

capacitor ac impedance and the load resistor,
the ac component of voltage resulting across
the load is
Vr ( rms ) X C 2
V 'r ( rms ) 
R

1
Where: XC2 
2f rinC
 Example
• Calculate the rms ripple voltage at the
output of an RC filter section that feeds a 1-
kOhm load when the filter input is 50 V dc
with 2.5-V rms ripple from a full-wave
rectifier and capacitor filter. The RC filter
section components are R = 100 Ohms and
C=100 microFarad.
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
 Voltage Regulators

• It is designed to provide a steady or well

regulated dc output.
• Voltage Regulation – it is the measure of quality
of a power supply.
• Line Regulation
• Load Regulation
• Stability Factor– stability factor for a voltage
regulator is a measure of the effectiveness of the
regulator. V
S  out
Vin
 Line Regulation
• Its purpose is to maintain a nearly constant output voltage
when the input voltage varies. When taken over a range of
input voltage values, line regulation is expressed as:

 V 
Line Regulation   out  x100%
 Vin 
• Line regulation can also be expressed in units of %/V. for
example, a line regulation of 0.05% means that output
voltage changes 0.05% when the input voltage
increases/decreases by one volt.
 VOUT / VIN 
Line Regulation    x100%
 VIN 
 Load Regulation
• Its purpose is to maintain a nearly constant
output voltage when the load varies.

 VNL  VFL 
Load Regulation    x100%
 VFL 
Where;
𝑉𝑁𝐿 - output voltage from no load
𝑉𝐹𝐿 - output voltage from full load
Sample Problem
A dc voltage supply provides 60V when
the output is unloaded. When
connected to a load, the output drops to
56V. Calculate the value of voltage
regulation.
 Basic Regulator: Zener Diode
• A Zener Diode is a special kind of diode which
permits current to flow in the forward direction
as normal, but will also allow it to flow in the
reverse direction when the voltage is above a
certain value - the breakdown voltage known as
the Zener voltage.
 Basic Regulator: Zener Diode

• The simplest of Zener diode networks

appears below
 Basic Regulator: Zener Diode

• The breakdown voltage of a Zener diode is

set by carefully controlling the doping level
during manufacture.
• A major application is as voltage regulator
for providing stable reference voltages for
use in power supplies, voltmeters and
other instruments.
 Problem
• (a) For the Zener diode network shown
below, determine VL, VR, IZ, and PZ.
• (b) Repeat part (a) with RL = 3 kOhms.
 SEATWORK
1. Calculate the ripple voltage of a full wave
rectifier with a 75-µF filter capacitor connected
to a load drawing 40 mA. Calculate also the
average voltage of the capacitor filter to a peak
rectified voltage of 40 V.

2. A 500-µF capacitor provides a load current of

200 mA at 8% ripple. Calculate the peak
rectified voltage obtained from 60 Hz supply
and the dc voltage across the filter capacitor.