Quantum Mechanical Model

of the Atom
• WAVELENGTH - The distance
between identical points on
successive waves. (  )

• FREQUENCY - The number

of waves that pass through a
particular point per second. ()

• AMPLITUDE - The vertical

distance from the midline to a
peak, or trough in the wave.
 Relationship Between  and 
c=x
Where, c = the speed of light = 3.00 x 108 m/s

c c
 Or  
 
Units of  and :
 Frequency is the number of peaks (cycles) that pass by a fixed point
in 1 s. Thus, has units of cycles/s. 1 cycle/s = 1 s-1 = 1 Hz (Hertz)
 Light has short wavelengths. So  is usually expressed in nm
or Å (angstrom)
1 nm = 10-9 m
1 Å = 10-10 m
Calculation of Frequency from Wavelength
Problem: The wavelength of an x-ray is 1.00 x10 -9 m or 1 nm, what is
the frequency of this x-ray? Electromagnetic radiation of very
long wavelength is used to contact submerged nuclear submarines.
What is the frequency of this type of radiation that has a wavelength of
7.65 x 104 m.

Solution:

frequency(cycles/sec) = speed of light

wavelength(m)
3.00 x 10 8 m/s
a) frequency = = 3.00 x 10 17 Hz
1.00 x 10 - 9 m

3.00 x 10 8 m/s
b) frequency = = 3.92 x 103 Hz
7.65 x 104 m
 The Particle Nature of Light
• When an object is provided with energy it can emit
electromagnetic radiation or it glows.

• From classical physics, it was originally believed that

objects can absorb any amount of energy. That
implies that objects emit continuous radiation
• Planck proposed that matter could only absorb or emit
discrete quantities of energy. The energy states of
matter was said to be “quantized”.

• Max Planck proposed that the energy emitted by glowing

objects can be determined from the equation:
 The Particle Nature of Light
E = nh
E = energy of emitted light,
n is a positive integer (1,2,3, ….) called quantum number
h = Planck’s constant = 6.626 x 10-34 J.s
 = frequency of emitted light

A quantum of light (particle of light) has energy, E, equal

to:
E = h
 Photon Theory of Light
• Planck’s theory did not contradict the
wavelike nature of light
• However, the wavelike model could not
explain the “photoelectric effect”.
• In a photoelectric experiment a beam of
monochromatic light (single wavelength)
strikes a metal surface. Above certain
threshold frequencies (energy) electrons are
ejected from the metal’s surface.
Photoelectric
Experiment

Fig. 7.7
 The Photoelectric Effect - I
• Below the threshold energy,
nothing occurs.
• Above the threshold, the kinetic
energy of the ejected electrons
is proportional to the frequency
of the light.
• Also, when above the threshold,
as intensity of the light increases,
so does the number of ejected
electrons.
• All metals experience this effect, but
each has a unique threshold frequency.
 Explanation of Photoelectric
Effect

• Albert Einstein ( Nobel prize – 1921)

– Light comes in packets or bundles called “photons”.
• Photons have an energy equal to:
E = h
 Calculation of Energy from Frequency

Problem: What is the energy of a photon of electromagnetic radiation

being emitted by radio station KBSG 97.3 FM ( 97.3 x 108 Hz)?

Solution:

EKBSG =h = (6.626 x 10 -34J.s)(9.73 x 109/s) = 6.447098 x 10 -24J

EKBSG = 6.45 x 10 - 24 J
 Calculation of Energy from Wavelength
Problem: What is the energy of a photon of electromagnetic radiation
that is used in microwave ovens if the wavelength of radiation is 122 mm.
Solution:

 c
Since and E = h

then E hc


 = 122 mm = 1.22 x 10 -1m

E= 6.626 x 10 -34Js x 3.00 x108 m/s

1.22 x 10 -1m = 1.63 x 10 - 23 J
 ATOMIC SPECTRA

• Excited elements in the gaseous

state emit electromagnetic radiation
of discrete wavelengths called “line
spectra”.
The Line Spectra of Several Elements

Fig. 7.8
 Three Series of Spectral Lines
of Atomic Hydrogen

Fig. 7.9
 RYDBERG EQUATION

• It was found that the following Rydberg

equation could be used to predict the
wavelength of any line in hydrogen’s
atomic emission spectrum.

1 1 1
= R ( - )
 n1 2 n22

R = 1.096776 x 107 m-1

n1 and n2 are positive integers and n2 > n1
 THE BOHR MODEL OF THE
HYDROGEN ATOM
• The electron in the hydrogen atom exists
in circular orbits about the nucleus
(stationary states). Each state is
characterized by an electron having a
fixed quantity of energy.
• An electron can change states (orbits) by
absorbing or emitting a photon with
energy equal to the difference in the
energies of the two states.
Ephoton = Estate A – Estate B = h
• Atomic spectra is not continuous because
energy of the atom is quantized.
Fig. 7.10
Light and Atoms
• When an atom gains a
photon, it enters an
excited state.
• This state has too much
energy - the atom must
lose it and return back
down to its ground
state, the most stable
state for the atom.
• An energy level
diagram is used to
represent these
changes.
 Energy Level Diagram

• Energy

Excited States Light

Emission
photon’s path

Light
Emission

Light
Emission
Ground State
 Energy Levels of the H Atom
• A useful result from Bohr’s work was the
development of an equation to calculate
the energy levels of the H atom using
classical physics
Z2
• E = - 2.18 x 10-18 J( )
n2
Z is charge of nucleus ( 1 for the H atom and )
N has values of 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 etc.

• The negative sign is derived from

definition. The energy of an electron
removed from the nucleus is defined as 0.
Fig. 7.11 A desktop analogy for the H atom’s energy
 Energy Levels of the H Atom
• As an electron undergoes a change of
state, its change in E can be calculated in
the following manner:
D E = Efinal -Einitial
1
Efinal = - 2.18 x 10-18 J ( )
n2final

1
Einitial = - 2.18 x 10-18 J ( n2initial
)
1 1
D E = -2.18 x 10-18 J ( n2final n2initial
(
 Energy Levels of the H Atom
•When an atom absorbs a photon the electron moves from a lower
n level to a higher n level (change in E is positive)
•When an atom emits a photon the electron moves from a higher
n level to a lower n level (change in E is negative)
•Though the change in energy with respect to the atom may be negative
(emission) or positive (absorption) the energy of the photon absorbed
or emitted is always positive. Therefore, to determine the E of the
photon absorbed or emitted one can either take the absolute value
of the change in energy from the preceding equation or arrange the
equation where E is always positive as shown below:

1 1
Ephoton = 2.18 x 10-18 J ( n12 n22
(
Where n2 > n1
 Back to the Rydberg Equation
hc
Since Ephoton = hv =

hc 1 1


= 2.18 x 10-18 J ( n12 n22
(
1 1 1


=
2.18 x 10-18J

(6.626 x 10-34 Js) x (3.00 x 108 m/s)

( n12 n22
(

1 1 1
= R ( - )
 n1 2 n2 2
 Using the Rydberg Equation
Problem: Find the energy change when an electron changes from the
n=6 level to the n=2 level in the hydrogen atom? What is the wavelength
of the photon emitted?
Solution:
1 1
D E = -2.18 x 10 J n2final
-18
( n2initial
(
1 1
J(
D E = -2.18 x 10-18 62initial
(
22final
D E = - 4.84 x 10-19 J
Since Ephoton must be positive
Ephoton = hc/  = 4.84 x 10-19 J
(6.626 x 10-34 Js)x (3.00 x 108 m/s) -7 m
 = = 4.75 x 10
4.184 x 10-19 J
 Using the Rydberg Equation
Problem: A hydrogen atom has to absorb an electron of what
frequency of electromagnetic radiation to go from the n = 2
energy level to n = 4.
Solution:
1 1
D E = -2.18 x 10 J 42final
-18
( (
22initial

(
D E = -2.18 x 10-18 J ( -0.1875 = 4.08 x 10-18 J

Ephoton = 4.08 x 10-18 J = h

4.08 x 10-18 J = 6.16 x 1015 s-1

=
6.626 x 10-34 Js
 The Wave Particle Duality of
Matter and Energy
•Einstein’s theory that E and mass were related concepts are
embodied in his famous equation of E = mc2

•However, the wavelike and particle nature of light led to the

perception that matter itself had the dual like property of behaving
like a wave and a particle.

•Debroglie raised the interesting hypothesis: if energy is particle-like

then matter might be wave-like.

•If electrons move like waves then we can understand why their
Energies are quantized.
 Wave Motion in Restricted Systems

Fig. 7.12
 The Wave Particle Duality of
Matter and Energy
•Combining Einstein’s equation for energy (E = mc2) and the
equation for the energy of a photon, De Broglie derived an
equation for the wavelength of any particle of mass, m, moving
at speed u:
hu
E = mu2 and E = hv =

hu
2 hu
mu =

or =
mu2
h
or = The De Broglie wavelength
mu
 The de Broglie Wavelengths
of Several Objects
Substance Mass (g) Speed (m/s)  (m)
Slow electron 9 x 10 - 28 1.0 7 x 10 - 4

Fast electron 9 x 10 - 28 5.9 x 106 1 x 10 -10

Alpha particle 6.6 x 10 - 24 1.5 x 107 7 x 10 -15

One-gram mass 1.0 0.01 7 x 10 - 29

Baseball 142 25.0 2 x 10 - 34

Earth 6.0 x 1027 3.0 x 104 4 x 10 - 63

 de Broglie Wavelength Calc. - I
Problem: Calculate the wavelength of an electron traveling 1% of the
speed of light ( 3.00 x 108m/s).
Solution:

Electron mass = 9.11 x 10 -31 kg

Electorn velocity = 0.01 x 3.00 x 108 m/s = 3.00 x 106 m/s

h = 6.626 x 10 - 34Js
=
mu ( 9.11 x 10 - 31kg )( 3.00 x 106 m/s )
kg m2
Js2 but J=
= 2.42 x 10-10 s2
kg m
kg m2s2
 = 2.42 x 10-10 = 2.42 x 10 -10 m = 0.242 nm
s2 kg m
 Quantum Numbers
• As the atom absorbs energy, it goes to an excited energy state.
• The wave motion of the electrons of an excited atom is
described by a wave function called an “atomic orbital”.
• An atomic orbital is described by three quantum numbers:

1. The principal quantum number (n): Indicates the size of

the orbital. n can be 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.
The principal quantum number specifies the energy level
(shell) of electrons in an atom. The larger the value of n the
higher the energy level.
Example: The H atom contains 1 electron. When the electron
occupies an orbital with n = 1 then the H atom is said to be in
its ground state. When the electron occupies an orbital with n =
2 then the H atom is said to be in its first excited state. Etc.
 Quantum Numbers

2. The angular momentum quantum number (l): Indicates

the shape of the orbital. l is an integer and can only have
values form 0 to n-1. I.e. the value of n limits the values of l

Example: For an orbital with n = 1, l can only be 0(s)

For an orbital with n = 2, l can 0(s) or 1(p)
For an orbital with n = 3, l can 0 (s), 1(p) or 2(d)

Note: The number of possible l values equals

the value of n and they make up the sublevels of
an orbital.
 Quantum Numbers

3. The magnetic quantum number (ml): Describes the

orientation of the orbital in space around the nucleus. ml is
an integer and can have values from –l to +l.

Example: For an orbital with l = 0 (s), ml can only be 0

For an orbital with l = 1(p), ml can –1, 0 or 1
For an orbital with n = 2(d), ml can –2, -1, 0, 1, or 2

Note: The number of possible ml values for a given l is

equal to 2l + 1. This number is the total number of atomic
orbitals for a given l quantum number.
 Quantum Numbers
Allowed Values

n 1 2 3 4
(shells)

l 0 0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3
(subshells)

ml 0 0 -1 0 +1 0 -1 0 +1 0 -1 0 +1

-2 -1 0 +1 +2 -2 -1 0 +1 +2
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3

Total number of orbitals for a given n values is equal to n2.

Determining Quantum Numbers for an Energy Level
Problem: What values of l and ml quantum numbers are allowed for a
principal quantum number (n) of 4? How many orbitals are allowed for
n=4?

Solution:
For n = 4, l can be 0, 1, 2, or 3

l = 0(s), ml = 0
l = 1(p), ml = -1, 0, +1
l = 2(d), ml = -2, -1, 0, +1, +2
l = 3(f), ml = -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2, +3
There are 16 ml values, so there are 16 orbitals for n=4!
as a check, the total number of orbitals for a given value of n is n2,
so for n = 4 there are 42 or 16 orbitals!
 Energy Sub-level Review
Sublevels are given letter designation

l = 0 is the s sublevel
l = 1 is the p sublevel

l = 2 is the d sublevel
l = 3 is the f sublevel
Remember:
An atomic orbital is specified by the n, l and ml quantum numbers.
For example:
an orbital with n =3 and l = 0 has the sublevel designation: 3s
an orbital with n =3 and l = 1 has the sublevel designation: 3p
an orbital with n =3 and l = 2 has the sublevel designation: 3d
 Determining sublevel designation,ml
values and total number of orbitals
Problem: For each of the following, give a) the sublevel
designation, b) the allowed ml values, and c) the number
of orbitals.
a. n = 4, l = 2.
The sublevel designation is : 4d

b. ml can have the values -2, -1, 0, 1,2

c. The number of orbitals equals the total number of ml values,

which is 5 for 4d sublevel.
 Determining sublevel designation,ml
values and total number of orbitals
Problem: What are the n, l, possible ml values, and the total
number of orbitals for the a) 3p and b) 4f sublevels?

a. For the 3p sublevel

n= 3, l = 1. ml = -1, 0, 1. Number of orbitals = 3

b. For the 4d sublevel

n= 4, l = 3. ml = -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3. Number of orbitals = 7
Fig 7.16
 Radial probability “Accurate” “Stylized” Combined area
distribution representation of the 2p of the three 2p
of the 2p distribution orbitals: 2px, 2py
distribution and 2pz orbitals

Fig. 7.17
Fig. 7.18
 Quantum Numbers
Spin Quantum Number ( ms ) gives the spin of
the electron with respect to an external magnetic
field
ms can either have the values: + 1 / 2 or - 1 / 2
 Summary of Quantum Numbers of
Electrons in Atoms
Name Symbol Permitted Values Property

Principal n Positive integers (1,2,3, etc.) Orbital energy

(size)

Angular l Integers from 0 to n - 1 Orbital shape (the l

momentum values 0, 1, 2, and 3
correspond to the s,
p, d, and f orbitals)

Magnetic ml Integers from -l to 0 to +l Orbital orientation

Spin ms + 1/2 or -1/2 Direction of e- spin

Table 8.2
 Summary of Quantum
Numbers
• n=1 L=0 mL = 0 ms = + 1/ 2 & - 1/ 2
• n=2 L=0 mL = 0 for all orbitals
• L=1 mL = -1 , 0 , +1
• n=3 L=0 mL = 0
• L=1 mL = -1 , 0 , +1
• L=2 mL = - 2 , -1 , 0 , +1 , +2
• n=4 L=0 mL = 0
• L=1 mL = -1 , 0 +1
• L=2 mL = - 2 , -1 , 0 , +1 , +2
• L=3 mL = - 3 , - 2 , - 1 , 0, +1,+2 ,+3
 Pauli Exclusion Principle:

•Each electron in an atom must have a unique set

of quantum numbers !

• Only two electrons can be described by the

same orbital and these two electrons must
have opposite spin.
Spectral Evidence of Energy-Level Splitting in
Many-Electron Atoms

Fig. 8.2
 Electrostatic Effects and the Splitting
Of Energy Levels
• When opposite charges are far apart the energy of the system is
higher in energy (less stable) then when they are close together

• When a large positive charge attracts a negative charge, the

energyof the system is lower than when a small positive charge
does so.

• In multiple electron systems the above effects lead to a more

complex set of energy states than what is observed for the H
atom.
• In multiple electron systems the energy states arise from
nucleus-electron attractions and electron-electron repulsion.
 Electrostatic Effects and the Splitting
Of Energy Levels

1) The Effect of Nuclear Charge (Z) on Orbital Energy

He+ & H have one electron but He+ has 2 protons, thus twice the
attractive force on the electrons:
Ionization Energy for the Two: He+ = - 5250 kJ / mole
H = - 1311 kJ / mole
2) The effect of an additional Electron on Orbital Energy

He has two electrons, whereas He+ has only one, the

resultant
repulsion of the electrons in He orbital gives a higher orbital
energy (smaller negative number).
E for He+ = -5250 kJ / mole E for He = -2372 kJ / mole
 Major Conclusions from Studies of
Orbital Stability
3) The Effect of Inner Electrons on the Energy of an Outer Orbital
The inner electrons (1s) shield the outer electrons (2s) from the full
attractive force of the nucleus, making the 2s orbital higher in energy.
This shielding means that the effective nuclear charge(Zeff), the
nuclear charge an electron actually experiences, is less for an electron
in an outer orbital.
E of H 1s = - 1311 kJ/mol and E of Li 2s = - 520 kJ/mol
4) The Effect of Orbital Shape (L value) on Orbital Energy
Because of their different shapes, a 2s electron is, on the average,
slightly further from the nucleus than the 2p, therefore we would
expect a 2s electron to be attracted less strongly and be higher in
energy. But because the 2s electron also has a small probability of
“penetrating” very close to the nucleus, thus lowering the energy of
the 2s electron, making its energy lower than the 2p electron.
Major Conclusions from Studies of
Orbital Stability

For orbital in the same principal energy level the order of

increasing energy is:

s<p<d<f
 Writing Electron Configurations
For Elements in the Ground State
• To write an electron configuration for an element in the
ground state electrons are sequentially added to orbitals
of increasing energy. Proper representation is diagrammed
below:

nle
n represents the principal energy level, l is the sublevel
(s,p,d, or f) and e is the number of electrons in that sublevel

Electron configuration for H = 1s1

Order of Electron Filling

1s

2s 2p

3s 3p 3d

4s 4p 4d 4f

5s 5p 5d 5f

6s 6p 6d

7s 7p
 Writing Electron Configurations
For Elements in the Ground State
• Electron configurations can also be represented by box
diagrams. Electrons are represented by arrows and boxes
are drawn from left to right in order of increasing E.

Box diagram for

hydrogen 1s
Orbital Box Diagrams - I H Be
Element Symbol Electron Orbital Box Diagrams
Configuration

Hydrogen H 1s1
1s 2s
Helium He 1s2
1s 2s

Lithium Li 1s22s1
1s 2s

Beryllium Be 1s22s2
1s 2s
 Orbital Box Diagrams - II : Boron

B (5 e-) 1s2 2s2 2p1

1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz

Where do we put the next electron for carbon

Hund’s Rule
•For an atom in its ground-state configuration, all unpaired
electrons have the same spin orientation.
Orbital Box Diagrams - II : C Ne

C (6 e-) 1s2 2s2 2p2

1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz
N (7 e-) 1s2 2s2 2p3
1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz
O (8 e-) 1s2 2s2 2p4
1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz

F (9 e-) 1s2 2s2 2p5

1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz

Ne (10 e-) 1s2 2s2 2p6

1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz
N 1s2 2s2 2p3
Orbital Box Diagrams - III Na Ar
Atomic Number Orbital Box Condensed Electron
Element Diagrams(3s&3p) Configuration
3s 3px 3py 3pz
11 Na [Ne] 3s1

12 Mg [Ne] 3s2

13 Al [Ne] 3s23p1

14 Si [Ne] 3s23p2

15 P [Ne] 3s23p3

16 S [Ne] 3s23p4
17 Cl [Ne] 3s23p5

18 Ar [Ne] 3s23p6
P 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
 Electron Configuration - IV

• K [Ar] 4s 1
• Ca [Ar] 4s 2
• Sc [Ar] 4s 2 3d 1
• Ti [Ar] 4s 2 3d 2
• V [Ar] 4s 2 3d 3
• Cr [Ar] 4s 2 3d 4
 Electron Configuration - IV

• Ga [Ar] 4s 2 3d 10 4p 1
• Ge [Ar] 4s 2 3d 10 4p 2
• As [Ar] 4s 2 3d 10 4p 3
• Se [Ar] 4s 2 3d 10 4p 4
• Br [Ar] 4s 2 3d 10 4p 5
• Kr [Ar] 4s 2 3d 10 4p 6 = [Kr]
As 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p3
 Electron Configuration - V
• Rb [Kr] 5s 1
• Sr [Kr] 5s 2
Anomalies to
• Y [Kr] 5s 24d 1 Filling
• Zr [Kr] 5s 2 4d 2
• Nb [Kr] 5s 1 4d 4
• Mo [Kr] 5s 1 4d 5
• Tc [Kr] 5s 2 4d 6
• Ru [Kr] 5s 1 4d7
• Rh [Kr] 5s 1 4d 8
• Pd [Kr] 4d 10
• Ag [Kr] 5s 1 4d 10
• Cd [Kr] 5s 2 4d 10
 Electron Configuration - VI

• In [Kr] 5s 2 4d 10 5p 1
• Sn [Kr] 5s 2 4d 10 5p 2
• Sb [Kr] 5s 2 4d 10 5p 3
• Te [Kr] 5s 2 4d 10 5p 4
• I [Kr] 5s 2 4d 10 5p 5
• Xe [Kr] 5s 2 4d 10 5p 6 = [Xe]
Sb 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p65s2 4d105p3
Electron Configuration - VII
• Cs [Xe] 6s 1
• Ba [Xe] 6s 2
• La [Xe] 6s2 5d 1
• Ce [Xe] 6s 2 5d 1 4f 1
• Pr [Xe] 6s 2 4f 3
• Nd [Xe] 6s 2 4f 4
Anomalies to
• Pm [Xe] 6s 2 4f 5
• Sm [Xe] 6s 2 4f 6
Filling
• Eu [Xe] 6s 2 4f 7
• Gd [Xe] 6s 2 3d 1 4f 7
• Tb [Xe] 6s 2 4f 9
• Dy [Xe] 6s 2 4f 10
• Ho [Xe] 6s 2 4f 11
• Er [Xe] 6s 2 4f 12
• Tm [Xe] 6s 2 4f 13
• Yb [Xe] 6s 2 4f 14
• Lu [xe] 6s 2 3d 1 4f 14
Electron Configuration - VIII
• Hf [Xe] 6s 2 4f 14 5d 2
• Ta [Xe] 6s 2 4f 14 5d 3
• W [Xe] 6s 2 4f 14 5d 4
• Re [Xe] 6s 2 4f 14 5d 5 Anomalies to
• Os [Xe] 6s 2 4f 14 5d 6 Filling
• Ir [Xe] 6s 2 4f 14 5d 7
• Pt [Xe] 6s 1 4f 14 5d 9
• Au [Xe] 6s 1 4f 14 5d 10
• Hg [Xe] 6s 2 4f 14 5d 10
• Tl [Xe] 6s 2 4f 14 5d 10 6p 1
• Pb [Xe] 6s 2 4f 14 5d 10 6p 2
• Bi [Xe] 6s 2 4f 14 5d 10 6p 3
• Po [Xe] 6s 2 4f 14 5d 10 6p 4
• At [Xe] 6s 2 4f 14 5d 10 6p 5
• Rn [xe] 6s 2 4f 14 5d 10 6p 6 = [Rn]
 A Periodic Table of
Partial Ground-State
Electron Configurations

Fig. 8.9
 Electron Configuration - IX
• Fr [Rn] 7s 1
• Ra [Rn] 7s 2
• Ac [Rn] 7s 2 6d 1
• Th [Rn] 7s 2 6d 2
• Pa [Rn] 7s 2 5f 2 6d 1
• U [Rn] 7s 2 5f 3 6d 1 Anomalies to
• Np [Rn] 7s 2 5f 4 6d 1 Filling
• Pu [Rn] 7s 2 5f 6
• Am [Rn] 7s 2 5f 7
• Cm [Rn] 7s 2 5f 7 6d 1
• Bk [Rn] 7s 2 5f 9
• Cf [Rn] 7s 2 5f 10
• Es [Rn] 7s 2 5f 11
• Fm [Rn] 7s 2 5f 12
• Md [Rn] 7s 2 5f 13
• No [Rn] 7s 2 5f 14
• Lr [Rn] 7s 2 5f 14 6d 1
 A Periodic Table of
Partial Ground-State
Electron Configurations

Fig. 8.9
 Electronic Configuration Ions

• Na 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 1 Na+ 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6
• Mg 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 Mg+2 1s 2 2s 2 2p6
• Al 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6 3s 2 3p 1 Al+3 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6
[Ne]
• O 1s 2 2s 2 2p 4 O- 2 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6
• F 1s 2 2s 2 2p 5 F- 1 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6

• N 1s 2 2s 2 2p 3 N- 3 1s 2 2s 2 2p 6
Fig. 8.11
Increasing size
 Ranking Elements by Size
Problem: Rank the following elements in each group according to
decreasing size ( largest first!):
a) Na, K, Rb b) Sr, In, Rb c) Cl, Ar, K d) Sr, Ca, Rb

Solution:
a) Rb > K > Na These elements are all alkali metals and the
elements increase in size as you go down the group.
b) Rb > Sr > In These elements are in Period 5 and the size
decreases as you go across the period.
c) K > Cl > Ar These elements border a noble gas, and it is the
smallest diameter.
d) Rb > Sr > Ca These elements are near each other, Sr is beneath
Ca therefore it is larger and Rb is next to Sr and
larger.
Defined as the amount of energy required to remove an
electron from an atom in the gas phase.

Mg(g) Mg+(g) + e I1 = 738 kJ/mol

Mg+(g) Mg2+(g) + e I2 = 1451 kJ/mol
IE1 = first ionization energy, always positive or
endothermic because energy must be added to
remove the electron

IE2 = second ionization energy, each succeeding

ionization energy is larger than the previous
one because the remaining electrons are held
more tightly
 General trend in the first ionization
energies of the main-group elements
Ionization energies INCREASE across a row because of
the increasing nuclear charge effect

Ionization energies INCREASE up a group because of

the decreasing shielding effect
Ranking Elements by First Ionization Energy

Problem: Using the Periodic table only, rank the following elements in
each of the following sets in order of increasing IE!
a) Ar, Ne, Rn b) At, Bi, Po c) Be, Na, Mg d) Cl, K, Ar

Solution:

a) Rn, Ar,Ne These elements are all noble gases and their IE
decreases as you go down the group.
b) Bi, Po, At These elements are all Period 6 elements and the IE
increases from the left to the right.
c) Na, Mg, Be These elements are close to each other, Be & Mg
are in the same group, Be is higher than Mg & Na
is next to Mg & lower in IE.
d) K, Cl, Ar These elements bracket the noble gas Ar, and Cl
would be lower than Ar and K would be lower yet!
The amount of energy associated with the gain of an
electron by an atom in the gas phase.

O(g) + e O-(g) EA1 = -141.3 kJ/mol

O(g) + 2e O2-(g) EA2 = +703 kJ/mol

EA1 = 1st electron affinity is negative or exothermic
(energy is released when an electron is added because it
is attracted to the positively charged nucleus)

EA2 = 2nd electron affinity and higher are positive or

endothermic because have to add a negatively-charged
electron to an ANION (electron-electron repulsions)

A MORE NEGATIVE electron affinity means the

atom has a GREATER AFFINITY for the electron.
The more energy released, the more stable the
resulting anion.
 General trend in the electron
affinities of the main-group
elements

Electron affinities become greater (more negative) across a

row because of the increasing nuclear charge effect.

Electron affinities become greater (more negative) up a

column because of the decreased shielding effect.
Trends in Three Atomic Properties